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of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L-l 

LB 

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T85 


This  book  is  DUE  on   the   last  date  stamped  below 


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JUL   2  2    IQ'^^ 
OCT  1  6   19?,^ 

j£C  2      1929 
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SEP  i^  1926 
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Form  L-9-2rn-7,'22 


i  0  i9ac 

5     1943 
AUG  2  61957 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF 
GOOD   TEACHING 


BY 

EDWIN    ARTHUR   TURNER 

DIRECTOR   OF    PRACTICE   TEACHING 

ILLINOIS    STATE    NORMAL    UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR   OF    "OUR    COMMON    FRIENDS    AND 

FOES"    AND   JOINT   AUTHOR    OF 

"A    RURAL    arithmetic" 


WITH    INTRODUCTION    BY 

LOTUS    I).    COFFMAN 

PRESIDENT   OF   THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    MlNNESOTiS 


47933 


D.    C.    HEATH    &   CO.,    PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON         NEW  YORK        CHICAGO 


Copyright,  1920, 
By  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co, 

2g2 


yfe 


T  B  5 

PREFACE 

Many  years  of  experience  in  supervising  practice  teaching 
and  in  conducting  method  courses  preparatory  to  such  teaching 
have  developed  in  the  writer  the  conviction  that  inteUigent  self- 
direction  is  the  most  economical  and  respectable  means  of 
producing  improvement  in  the  art  of  teaching,  provided  the 
"self-direction"  is  guided  by  a  knowledge  of  the  basic  principles 
of  good  teaching.  Thus  safeguarded,  self-direction  is  economical 
in  that  it  insures  a  thoughtful  beginning  and  thereby  avoids 
much  of  the  wasteful  expenditure  of  energy  involved  in  re- 
constructing harmful  habits  that  have  resulted  from  imitation. 
It  is  respectable  in  that  it  has  a  universally  accepted  foundation 
and  is,  therefore,  capable  of  being  defended. 

The  form  of  the  present  volume  is  the  result  of  a  desire,  and 
even  a  hope,  of  the  writer  to  lay  bare  the  essentials  of  good 
teaching  in  a  simple,  concrete,  and  consistent  manner  in  order  to 
conserve  the  time  and  energy  of  teachers  who  are  anxious  for 
intelligent  guidance  in  their  teaching.  The  order  and  the  or- 
ganization of  the  various  chapters  are  determined  by  the 
principles  that  are  emphasized  in  the  first  chapter.  An  occa- 
sional reference  to  these  principles  will  aid  one  in  determining 
the  sequence  and  relative  worth  of  the  topics  presented. 

The  writer  desires  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  suggestions  he 
has  received  from  the  critic  teachers  of  the  practice  department 
of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University  during  the  years  he  has 
been  director  of  practice  teaching.  He  desires  especially  to 
express  appreciation  for  the  helpful  suggestions  of  Professor 
M.  J.  Holmes  and  of  Principal  T.  J.  Lancaster,  of  the  Illinois 


iv  PREFACE 


State  Normal  University,  who  read  the  entire  manuscript,  and 
for  the  sympathetic  assistance  of  his  wife,  Charlotte  Griggs 
Turner. 


Normal,  III. 
July  I,  1920. 


EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

Most  books  on  classroom  technique  are  filled  with  helps, 
outlines,  devices,  and  tricks  of  the  trade.  They  are  concerned 
with  the  practice  of  education.  Such  books  usually  find  a  ready 
market  because  teachers  want  to  know  how  to  teach.  More- 
over, skillful  manipulation  is  frequently  accepted  as  an  index  of 
good  teaching.  But  to  fix  attention  upon  helps  and  devices  is 
to  fix  attention  upon  the  externals  of  education.  It  means  that 
thought  is  arrested  on  the  plane  of  thinking  in  things  rather 
than  on  the  plane  of  thinking  in  principles ;  it  means  that  the 
practical  judgment  —  the  judgment  which  deals  with  the 
near-at-hand  in  a  manner  analogous  to  some  similar  experience 
—  is  emphasized  at  the  expense  of  the  conceptual  judgment  — 
the  judgment  which  determines  conduct  in  terms  of  principles 
or  tested  experience.  It  is  obvious  that  these  levels  of  thought 
find  expression  in  levels  of  technique.  The  exercise  of  the 
practical  judgment  results  in  devices ;  the  exercise  of  the  con- 
ceptual judgment  results  in  principles. 

Few  writers  on  education  have  reduced  practice  to  principle, 
and  yet  it  is  only  as  one  is  cognizant  of  principles  that  he  is 
able  to  illumine  practice.  Not  a  few  still  cherish  the  tradition 
that  theory  is  something  separate  and  quite  apart  from  practice. 
They  fail  to  recognize  that,  in  general,  theory  is  the  result  of  the 
failures  of  practice.  One  discovers  fundamentals  by  observing 
their  manifestations.  Just  so  long  as  things  run  smoothly,  so 
long  as  there  is  no  break  in  the  current  of  things,  there  is  no 
occasion  for  thought.  One  thinks  when  his  mental  equilibrium 
is  disturbed,  when  he  is  conscious  of  some  maladjustment,  when 
the  sensation  of  strain  between  what  one  is  and  is  not  but 


VI  EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

ought  to  be  is  intensified.  Only  then  does  he  have  a  problem ; 
only  then  does  he  search  for  the  hidden  factors  which  explain 
the  breaks  in  thought  or  the  breaches  of  conduct.  These 
considerations  hold  with  equal  force  when  applied  to  school 
procedure.  To  arrive  at  the  essentials  of  classroom  teaching 
one  must  observe  teaching  itself.  He  will  note  its  failure  to 
secure  satisfactory  results.  He  will  interpret  its  strengths  and 
weaknesses  in  terms  of  life  outside  the  school.  He  will  check 
the  completeness  with  which  the  child  is  being  adjusted  to  the 
world  outside  by  being  adjusted  to  a  constantly  enlarging  series 
of  worlds  inside  the  school.  Every  stage  and  every  step  of 
the  process  will  be  tested  to  discover  the  principles  that  under- 
lie and  explain  the  best  practice. 

Such  is  the  manner  in  which  the  philosophy  of  this  book  has 
been  built  up.  The  author  for  years  has  been  the  director  of  a 
training  school.  His  program  of  education  and  outline  of 
principles  are  the  result  of  thousands  of  recitations  that  he  had 
observed.  At  the  very  outset  he  dififerentiates  teaching  from 
other  forms  of  activity.  He  defines  aims  of  public  school 
teaching  in  terms  of  social  needs ;  describes  the  origin,  growth, 
and  organization  of  subject-matter  and  shows  its  functional 
implications;  explains  clearly  how  the  child  is  the  chief 
determinant  of  method;  applies  the  principles  thus  arrived  at 
to  ways  of  learning,  acquisition  of  habits,  the  development  of 
appreciation,  means  of  imposing  responsibility;  outlines  the 
character  of  stimuli  involved  in  good  teaching,  and  finally  shows 
how  these  essentials  of  good  teaching  should  actually  be  em- 
ployed in  the  presentation  of  the  various  elementary  school 
subjects. 

For  the  teacher  who  desires  a  safe  and  sane  philosophy,  a 
wholesome  philosophy,  one  that  has  stood  the  test  of  experience, 
this  book  will  prove  invaluable.  For  one  who  needs  a  solid 
base  upon  which  to  build  a  substantial  superstructure  of  school- 
room experience,  this  book  will  serve  as  a  safe  guide.  For  one 
who  is  disturbed  by  the  thousand  and  one  miscellaneous  and 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION  vii 

apparently  inchoate  performances  of  the  schoolroom,  this  book 
will  aid  in  unifying  and  in  interpreting  them.  In  addition  the 
manuscript  has  the  merit  of  being  simple  in  style  and  of  possess- 
ing that  concreteness  of  illustration  and  wealth  of  detail  that 
adapt  it  to  the  use  of  young  as  well  as  to  old  teachers. 

Lotus  D.  Coffman 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Teaching  Distinguished  from  Other  Forms 

OF  Doing i 

Earmarks  of  industrial  success;  earmarks  of  good 
teaching ;  scholarship  not  a  guarantee  of  good  teaching ; 
steps  in  a  successful  act  —  definite  aim,  knowledge  of 
materials,  skill  in  controlling  materials,  a  boundless 
enthusiasm;  steps  peculiar  to  a  successful  teaching 
act  —  social  aim,  function  and  structure  of  subject- 
matter,  knowledge  of  the  reactive  attitude  of  the  child, 
knowledge  of  appropriate  stimuli,  skillful  control  of 
stimuli,  enthusiasm  for  teaching ;  summary. 

II.    The  Aim  of  Public-School  Teaching      .        .      14 

The  goal  of  instruction ;  dynamic  aspect  of  teaching  aims ; 
static  aspect  of  teaching  aims;  an  apparent  diversity 
in  the  aims  of  instruction  —  "complete  living,"  "good 
will  to  men  useful  and  happy  lives  and  noble  enjoy- 
ment," "adjustment,"  "social  efficiency,"  "apprecia- 
tion and  control  of  values  of  life,"  "produce  and  utilize 
jjroduction " ;  social  efficiency  a  teaching  aim;  inter- 
pretative need,  need  of  skill,  socializing  need,  moral 
need,  cultural  need ;  summary. 

III.  The  Growth  of  Subject- Matter     ...      34 

The  acid  test  of  subject-matter;  twofold  phase  of 
worthwhileness ;  dynamic  character  of  subject-matter; 
origin  of  subject-matter  —  desire  to  know,  practical 
problems  to  solve;  compromise  view  of  the  origin  of 
subject-matter ;  agencies  which  operate  to  conserve  sub- 
ject-matter —  imitation,  recession  from  content  to  form, 
group  teaching;  a  sense  of  relative  values  necessary  to 
progress;  child  factor  in  evolution  of  subject-matter; 
psychologized  subject-matter  —  present  status  of  read- 
ing, present  status  of  arithmetic ;  present  status  of  other 
subjects. 

IV.  Organization  of  Subject-Matter     .        .        .      49 

Living  organisms ;    hereditary  variation  and  selection, 
the  survival  of  the  fittest ;    inanimate  organisms  —  the 
ix 


CONTENTS 


formative  agency,  twofold  purpose;  school  concerned 
with  the  twofold  nature  of  structure  —  develop  creative 
abilities,  develop  interpretative  abilities;  interrelation 
of  structure  and  function  —  structure  reveals  purpose, 
purpose  determines  structure;  organization  and  logical 
thinking ;  means  of  determining  unifying  ideas ;  teachers' 
organizations ;  indirect  and  specific  purpose  of  subject- 
matter;  organization  and  retention;  typical  organiza- 
tions —  psychological  approach,  interrelation  of  logical 
and  psychological  organizations,  chronological  organiza- 
tions. 

V.    The  Child  Factor  in  Method  ...      69 

Human  nature  accounted  for;  two  distinct  theories  of 
evolution  —  transmission  of  acquired  characteristics, 
congenital  variation  and  selection ;  advancement  through 
accumulated  experiences;  reactive  attitude  of  the 
child ;  two  types  of  thinking  —  simple  thinking,  pur- 
posive thinking,  factors  —  the  problem,  the  project  a 
form  of  the  problem,  examples  of  the  project,  the  project 
defined,  value  of  the  project,  basic  experience,  a  felt 
need,  habits  of  reasoning ;  individual  differences ;  sense 
differences ;  instinctive  differences.  • 

VI.    Teaching  Based  upon  Ways  of  Learning      .      93 

Means  of  teaching ;  methods  of  learning  —  imitation, 
induction  —  direct  perception,  indirect  perception,  com- 
parison, generalization  and  definition,  application;  de- 
duction —  a  felt  diflaculty,  examination  of  data,  tenta- 
tive hypotheses,  testing  hypotheses,  verification;  re- 
view of  the  deductive  factors. 

VII.    Habit  Formation 117 

Scope  of  habit ;  relation  of  habit  to  eflSciency  —  con- 
serves energy,  releases  energy,  makes  for  uniformity  and 
consistency;  habits  the  school  should  establish;  method 
in  habit  formation  —  steps  involved. 

VIII.     The  Emotional  Factor  in  Teaching       .        .     134 

Emotional  aspects  of  the  self  —  interest,  motive; 
phases  of  motive ;  play,  work,  and  drudgery ;  ideals  and 
prejudices. 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PACE 

IX.     Means  of  Generating  Responsibility     .        .146 

Interest  in  subject-matter  for  its  own  sake  —  examples, 
means  of  arousing  it,  problematic  assignments,  chance  for 
voluntary  contributions  —  individual  reports,  optional 
work;  positive  social  approval  of  teacher,  classmates, 
and  others  —  examples,  means  of  arousing  —  strong 
personal  appeal,  opportunity  to  win  —  dramatization, 
exhibits,  supplementary  reports,  optional  work,  furnish- 
ing materials,  unstinted  approval  of  teacher,  approval 
of  class,  topical  recitation,  use  of  blackboard ;  negative 
social  approval  —  means  of  stimulating ;  daily  tests ; 
definite  administrative  requirerrjents  —  punctuality,  so- 
cializing agencies,  standardized  tests. 

X.    Value  and  Character  of  Effective  Stimuli    .     164 

Use  of  stimuli :  classes  of  stimuli :  concrete  stimuli  — 
direct,  illustrative ;  forms  of  presenting  subject-matter  — 
textbook  method,  lecture  method,  developing  method; 
classroom  questions  —  direct,  indirect,  alternative,  ellip- 
tical. 

XI.    The  Value  and  Method  of  Comparison         .     177 

Nature  of  comparison ;  comparison  provokes  thought ; 
examples  —  history,  nature  study,  English,  literature; 
comparison  clarifies  thought ;  comparison  stimulates 
the  memory;  comparison  prevails  in  modern  textbooks; 
objective  standards  force  comparison. 

XII.    Application  of  Principles  to  Reading    .        .188 

Industries  employ  expert  knowledge ;  schools  must  em- 
ploy expert  knowledge;  expert  knowledge  in  reading; 
motivating  factors  in  primary  reading  —  rhythmic  in- 
stinct, phonograms,  dramatization,  telling  the  story,  use 
of  pictures,  suitable  reading  materials. 

XIII.    Application  of  Principles  to  Primary  Arith- 
metic, Writing,  and  Spelling    .        .        .     200 

Origin  of  method  in  arithmetic ;  notable  features  in  text- 
books; an  initial  device  for  creating  motive;  problems 
should  precede  drill ;  accuracy  and  speed ;  success ;  re- 
duction of  processes  to  conserve  energy ;  Austrian  method 
of  subtraction ;  Austrian  method  of  division ;  analysis  of 


Xii  CONTENTS 


the  writing  process  —  intrinsic  function  of  writing,  use 
of  standardized  scales,  movement  and  quality  of  writing 
—  muscular  movement,  application  of  fundamental 
habits ;  disagreement  among  writing  masters ;  applica- 
tion of  the  formal  steps  of  habit  formation  to  writing; 
spelling  problem  analyzed  —  influence  of  reformers,  ap- 
plication of  rules,  results  of  investigation  —  objective 
scales,  modified  vocabularies,  simplified  spelling;  appli- 
cation of  the  laws  of  habit  formation  to  spelling. 

XIV.     Standards  for  Measuring  Results  of  Teach- 
ing          217 

General  meaning  of  efficiency ;  measurement  of  efficiency 
in  the  industries;  legal  aspect  of  standards,  classes  of 
standards  —  subjective  standards,  objective  standards; 
subjective  standards  —  pupil-community  attitude,  grades 
and  promotions,  classroom  technique,  the  reactive  atti- 
tude of  the  child,  guides  and  unstandardized  scales. 

XV.     Growth  and  Application  of  Objective  Stand- 
ards        227 

Classes  of  objective  standards  —  standardized  scores, 
standardized  scales;  origin  of  objective  standards; 
spelling  standards  —  Rice's  Spelling  Standard,  Corn- 
man's  Spelling  Standards,  Ayres'  Spelling  Scale,  Bucking- 
ham's Spelling  Scale,  Starch's  Spelling  Scale,  Jones'  Spell- 
ing Demons ;  handwriting  standards  —  Thorndike's 
Handwriting  Scale,  Ayres'  Handwriting  Scale,  Gettysburg 
Edition  of  Ayres'  Handwriting  Scale,  Freeman's  Chart 
for  Diagnosing  Faults  in  Handwriting,  Starch's  Hand- 
writing Standard ;  reading  standards  —  Thorndike's 
Reading  Scales,  Kansas  Silent  Reading  Scale,  Monroe's 
Silent  Reading  Tests,  Gray's  Silent  and  Oral  Reading 
Tests,  Courtis'  Silent  Reading  Test;  composition 
standards  —  Rice's  Language  Test,  Bliss's  English  Com- 
position Tests,  the  Hillegas  Scale  for  the  Measurement 
of  Quality  in  English  Composition,  The  Harvard-Newton 
Composition  Scales;  Trabue's  Composition  Standard; 
arithmetic  standards  —  Rice's  Arithmetic  Test,  Courtis' 
Standard  Tests  in  Arithmetic,  Cleveland-Survey  Arith- 
j_^.        metic  Tests,  Woody  Arithmetic  Scales,  Ballou  Addition 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


of  Fractions  Tests;  drawing  scales  —  Thorndike's  Scale 
for  Measuring  Achievement  in  Drawing;  geography 
scales  —  Hahn-Lackey  Geography  Scale ;  historj^  scales, 
Tests  of  Information  in  American  History;  Standards 
in  Algebra  —  Standardized  Tests  in  First-year  Alge- 
bra, Hurdles  in  First-year  Algebra;  standards  used  to 
measure  both  form  and  content;  diagnostic  value  of 
objective  standards. 


Index 


265 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD 
TEACHING 

CHAPTER   I 

TEACHING  DISTINGUISHED  FROM   OTHER 
FORMS   OF  DOING 

Earmarks  of  Industrial  Success.  —  In  ordinary  affairs 
we  are  accustomed  to  think  of  forethought  and  systematic 
planning  as  prerequisites  to  success.  A  successful  gardener 
considers  climatic  probabilities,  soil  fertility,  quality  of 
seed,  period  of  maturity,  methods  of  planting,  cultivating, 
and  harvesting  before  he  begins  to  plant.  The  successful 
merchant  holds  in  imagination  the  probable  needs  of  his 
customers  for  the  coming  season  before  he  lays  in  the 
season's  goods.  The  successful  contractor  critically 
examines  the  blueprint  of  a  proposed  structure,  a  price 
list  of  the  materials  required,  and  the  availability  and  cost 
of  the  labor  needed  to  construct  it  before  he  bids  on  the 
building  in  question.  In  short,  seeing  the  end  from  the 
beginning  is  an  earmark  of  reliable  and  consistent  success 
in  the  industries. 

Earmarks  of  Good  Teaching.  —  This  earmark  of  success 
characterizes  good  teaching  also.  Adequate  forethought 
is  more  fruitful  in  teaching  than  in  the  less  subtle  and  more 
concrete  processes.     There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that 


2  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

''seeing  the  end  from  the  beginning"  is  a  much  more  com- 
plicated process  in  teaching  than  in  most  fields  of  endeavor. 
Those  who  think  otherwise  have  in  mind  but  a  portion  of 
the  teaching  process.  They  think  of  subject-matter  and 
scholarship  as  the  prime  prerequisites  of  teaching  success. 
The  number  of  such  persons  in  the  teaching  profession  is 
sufficient  to  justify  detailed  consideration  of  the  essential 
factors  in  the  teaching  process  at  the  outset  of  a  discussion 
of  methods  of  teaching. 

There  is  no  science  of  teaching  —  not  even  a  teaching 
art  —  for  those  who  hold  this  view.  It  is  vital  therefore 
that  teaching  be  distinguished  from  other  forms  of  doing 
and  that  its  essential  characteristics  be  written  large  so 
that  beginners  may  realize  the  complexity,  the  coordination, 
the  understanding,  and  the  skills  involved  in  efficient  teach- 
ing. 

Scholarship  Not  a  Guarantee  of  Good  Teaching.  —  A 
certain  degree  of  scholarship  is  a  necessary  but  not  a  suffi- 
cient preparation  for  teaching.  The  scores  of  normal 
schools,  city  training  schools,  teachers'  colleges,  and  the 
general  supervision  of  teaching  throughout  the  country 
are  concrete  evidence  of  the  accuracy  of  this  state- 
ment. There  is  a  widely  accepted  notion  among  patrons 
and  even  among  the  rank  and  file  of  teachers  that  if  one 
has  sufficient  academic  training  he  is  qualified  to  teach 
successfully.  This  view  is  so  significant  and  its  acceptance 
so  hazardous  that  it  should  not  be  ignored  by  teachers  of 
pedagogy.  It  is  incumbent  upon  those  who  profess  to 
beHeve  in  the  science  of  teaching  either  to  expose  the 
fallacious  theory  that  scholarship  is  a  sufficient  pre- 
requisite to  teach  adequately ;  or  to  abandon,  temporarily 
at  least,  the  claims  for  the  adequacy  of  methods  of  teaching. 


DISTINGUISHED    FROM   OTHER   FORMS  OF  DOING        3 

Factors  in  a  Successful  Act 

Like  the  solution  of  every  complex  problem,  that  of  good 
teaching  must  be'  approached  through  an  analysis  of  the 
problem  into  its  essential  factors.  One  must  discover  the 
steps  in  the  conscious  process  of  performing  an  act  and 
observe  in  what  particulars  they  differ  from  the  steps  in  the 
conscious  process  of  teaching  some  one  to  perform  a  similar 
act. 

A  Definite  Aim.  —  It  is  inconceivable  that  one  should 
deliberately  perform  an  act  without  a  purpose  or  aim. 
Observation  of  individual  endeavor  discovers  purpose. 
The  acts  of  the  farmer  as  he  goes  back  and  forth  across 
the  field  at  his  plowing;  the  acts  of  the  shoemaker  in 
applying  his  trade  from  day  to  day;  the  multitudinous 
acts  of  the  housekeeper  in  her  daily  round  of  activity; 
and  the  various  moves  of  the  fisherman  in  his  endeavor  to 
excite  the  appetite  of  the  finny  tribe,  would  seem  incoherent 
and  ridiculous  to  the  observer  did  he  not  discover  purpose 
back  of  them  all. 

One  must  admit,  however,  that  all  human  activity  is  not 
deliberately  performed.  Through  the  processes  of  physical 
evolution  many  fundamental  activities  have  been  provided 
for  by  automatic  reactions.  Reflexes  and  instincts  are 
ready-made  methods  of  performing  many  vital  acts  which 
are  fundamental  to  the  welfare  of  the  individual  and  to  the 
race.  One  cannot  afford  to  close  the  eye  deliberately  when 
a  flying  cinder  approaches  it.  Neither  can  he  afford  to 
take  chances  of  escaping  the  fangs  of  a  rattle-snake  by 
thinking  about  a  way  to  escape.  In  either  case  deliberation 
is  too  slow  a  process.  Nature  has  provided  ready-made 
ways  of  successfully  doing  many   things   which   demand 


4  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

immediate  action  for  the  care  and  welfare  of  the  body. 
Unconscious  imitation  is  a  familiar  example  of  the  prevalence 
and  importance  of  unpremeditated  activities. 

Habit  also  plays  a  large  and  important  part  in  human 
welfare.  One  large  function  of  systematic  training  is  the 
reduction  of  consciously  directed  activities  to  habits. 
Effective  habits  conserve  both  time  and  energy,  make  for 
efficiency,  reduce  fatigue,  and  release  mental  and  physical 
energy  for  further  accomplishments. 

Though  native  and  habituated  reactions  are  many  and 
varied,  and  of  vital  significance  in  individual  and  racial 
economy,  they  are  not  peculiarly  human  qualities.  It  is 
only  when  one  deliberately  begins  to  control  his  eviron- 
ment  and  consciously  directs  his  energy  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  some  purpose  that  his  act  savors  of  human  quality. 
It  is  to  be  assumed,  therefore,  that  in  every  deliberate  per- 
formance man  has  an  aim.  To  the  extent  that  the  aim  is 
definite  and  concrete  there  is  an  assurance  of  success. 

A  Knowledge  of  Materials.  —  Though  a  definite  concrete 
aim  is  essential  to  successful  endeavor,  it  is  by  no  means  a 
complete  guarantee  of  success.  A  fisherman  may  have  a 
very  definite  notion  of  how  he  expects  to  ensnare  a  fish  in 
the  brook  and  yet  completely  fail  in  his  efforts.  He  must 
have  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  materials  to  be  employed 
in  the  realization  of  his  aim.  If  the  fisherman  is  to  succeed, 
he  must  know  the  sort  of  bait  to  use  and  how  to  prepare 
it.  He  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  fishing  tackle  em- 
ployed by  successful  fishermen,  —  poles,  lines,  sinkers, 
bobbers,  reels,  and  hooks.  He  must  have  a  general  notion 
of  the  mouth  structure  of  the  various  species  of  fish  he  is 
trying  to  catch,  as  well  as  a  general  knowledge  of  the  feeding 
habits  of  these  species. 


DISTINGUISHED    FROM   OTHER    FORMS   OF   DOING        5 

In  like  manner,  successful  farming  depends  upon  a  definite 
knowledge  of  the  materials  employed.  To  be  efifiicient, 
the  farmer  must  understand  the  chemical  ingredients  of 
the  crops  he  raises  and  the  relative  prevalence  of  these 
ingredients  in  the  soils  he  cultivates.  He  must  know  when 
and  how  to  sow  and  reap  most  advantageously.  He  must 
be  familiar  with  improved  farm  implements  and  with  their 
relative  value  in  preparing  the  soil. 

Whether  it  be  fishing,  farming,  house  building,  running  a 
grocery,  the  making  of  brooms,  the  constructing  of  automo- 
biles, or  the  baking  of  bread,  adequate  and  continuous 
success  depends  upon  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  materials 
employed  by  him  who  is  conducting  the  enterprise. 

Skill  in  Controlling  Materials.  —  One  may  have  a  definite 
aim  and  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  materials  to  be 
employed  and  yet  fail  in  an  endeavor.  A  sportsman  may 
have  a  very  clear  notion  of  the  game  he  expects  to  bag  and 
a  very  thorough  knowledge  of  guns  and  ammunitions,  and 
yet  disgrace  himself  in  a  hunting  contest.  Indeed  he  may 
understand  the  specific  purpose  of  each  make  of  gun,  be 
familiar  with  the  propelling  power  of  each  grain  of  explosive 
used,  and  know  the  degrees  of  hardness  of  the  bullets  em- 
ployed. Moreover,  it  is  possible  that  he  may  be  conscious 
of  the  fundamental  principle  which  is  involved  in  all  suc- 
cessful shooting,  namely,  "two  points  determine  a  straight 
line,"  and  yet  fail  as  a  sportsman.  Successful  hunting 
consists  in  more  than  a  definite  aim  and  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  materials  employed  in  the  realization  of  that 
aim.  It  is  conditioned  by  the  degree  of  skill  employed  in 
manipulating  the  firing  piece. 

What  is  essential  to  success  in  hunting  is  essential  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  other  successful  enterprises.     As 


6  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

human  endeavor  becomes  more  highly  speciaHzed  and  as 
competition  increases,  skill  becomes  an  increasingly  large 
factor  in  success. 

Boundless  Enthusiasm.  —  One  would  suppose  that  if  he 
possesses  a  definite  aim,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
materials  to  be  employed,  and  skill  in  manipulating 
the  materials  in  the  furtherance  of  the  aim,  a  successful 
accomplishment  is  assured.  On  the  contrary,  however, 
experience  is  rich  with  incidents  that  belie  the  apparent 
trustworthiness  of  this  supposition.  Who  has  not  known 
a  tramp  or  a  vagabond  who  possessed  "skill,"  a  "thorough 
knowledge  of  materials"  and  who  at  intervals  apparently 
had  a  "definite  aim"?  Not  infrequently  the  persistent 
lounger  on  grocery  boxes,  in  railway  stations,  around  pub- 
lic buildings,  and  about  pubfic  squares  possesses  one  or  all 
of  these  factors  of  success. 

Purpose,  knowledge,  and  skill,  though  essential,  are  not 
in  themselves  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  success.  They  must 
be  reenforced  with  a  boundless  enthusiasm,  to  insure  a  high 
degree  of  success.  Emotion  is  the  mainspring  to  action. 
It  insures  persistency  of  effort.  It  alone  keeps  one  "on 
the  job"  against  great  distractions.  Enthusiasm  need  not 
be  of  a  violent  form.  It  may  be  and  usually  should  be 
quiet  and  submerged.  Indeed,  the  best  sort  is  of  the 
quiet  and  intense  kind.  It  must,  however,  possess  the 
endeavorer.  It  must  keep  one  at  his  task  until  he  manipu- 
lates the  materials  he  understands,  in  such  a  way  as  to  reahze 
his  purpose. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  above  analysis  that  successful 
conscious  endeavor  involves  a  definite  aim,  a  knowledge  of 
the  essential  materials  needed  in  the  realization  of  the  aim, 
skill  in  adjusting  the  materials  to  the  requirements  of  the 


DISTINGUISHED   FROM  OTHER  FORMS  OF  DOING        7 

aim,  and  lastly  an  unahating  enthusiasm.  One  possessed 
of  these  qualities  can  scarcely  fail  in  any  normal  enterprise 
which  engages  his  attention. 

Factors  Peculiar  to  a  Successful  Teaching  Act 

If  one  constructs  a  box  or  a  series  of  boxes  successfully, 
each  of  the  factors  referred  to  above  is  involved.  Should 
he  teach  another  to  construct  the  box,  what  steps  should  he 
take?  It  is  apparent  that  there  is  a  decided  difference  in 
the  two  processes.  The  problem  before  us  is :  In  what 
essential  particulars  does  doing  a  thing  dijfer  from  teaching 
some  one  to  do  that  thing  ?  How  do  the  factors  involved  in 
constructing  a  box  differ  from  those  involved  in  teaching 
some  one  to  construct  it? 

One  may  be  very  successful  in  making  boxes  and  yet  have 
little  or  no  capacity  for  teaching  others  to  make  them. 
Children  may  observe  a  box-maker  make  a  box  and  through 
the  process  of  conscious  imitation  learn  to  make  an  equally 
good  box.  The  box-maker,  however,  does  not  teach  the 
children  to  make  the  box  any  more  than  the  squirrel,  the 
cow,  and  the  sheep  teach  those  who  imitate  their  voices. 
In  all  such  cases  the  children  learn,  but  they  are  not  taught. 
Teaching  consists  in  something  more  subtle  than  the  ex- 
pression of  ideas  and  the  solution  of  problems  subject  to 
imitation.  It  involves  a  round  of  inter-related  activities 
quite  as  marked  and  more  difficult  of  comprehension  than 
those  concerned  with  an  ordinary  overt  act. 

Social  Aim.  —  The  first  of  these  activities,  when  teaching 
is  properly  directed,  is  a  social  aim.  The  school  is  an  in- 
strument of  society,  created  and  maintained  by  it,  first  of 
all,  for  its  own  betterment.     Buildings,  appliances,  books, 


8  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

and  teachers  are  all  utilized  in  the  accomplishment  of 
this  end.  When  once  this  view  is  obtained  it  serves  as  a 
standard  in  deciding  the  suitability  of  the  subject-matter. 
Without  it  the  teacher  is  helpless  in  the  choice  of  curricula. 
His  only  recourse  is  imitation.  A  teacher  must  have  a 
very  definite  notion  of  what  society  wants  the  school  to 
accomplish  in  order  to  avoid  traditional  imitation  in 
the  choice  of  subject-matter.  The  social  aim  is  to  the 
teacher  what  the  barometer  is  to  the  weather  expert  and 
the  polar  star  is  to  the  navigator.  A  further  analysis 
reveals  other  significant  factors  in  the  teaching  process. 

Function  and  Structure  of  Subject-Matter.  —  It  is  not 
enough  that  the  teacher  know  what  society  desires  the 
child  to  become.  He  must  be  familiar  also  with  the 
function  and  structure  of  the  subject-matter  employed. 
Scholarship  is  a  prerequisite  to  successful  teaching.  There 
is  no  substitute  for  scholarship.  The  teacher  must  know 
what  he  should  teach  and  understand  the  method  of  ex- 
posing it,  if  he  would  insure  its  transfer  to  others.  The 
importance  of  this  factor  in  the  teaching  process,  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  teachers  in  all  ages  have  stressed 
its  relative  value.  Young  teachers  have  been  more  con- 
cerned with  the  nature  of  subject-matter  than  with  the  na- 
ture of  the  child  activity  involved  in  its  attainment,  and 
probably  always  will  be.  It  is  quite  certain  that  an  under- 
standing of  the  importance  of  the  other  factors  involved 
in  teaching  should  in  no  wise  lessen  our  respect  for  a  sane 
understanding  of  the  subject-matter.  Scholarship  will 
always  be  a  vital  and  essential  factor  of  good  teaching. 

Knowledge  of  the  Reactive  Attitude  of  the  Child. — A 
chicken  while  being  chased  indiscriminately  by  a  small 
child  ran  through  a  gate  into  the  inclosure  where  its  com- 


DISTINGUISHED    FROM   OTHER   FORMS  OF  DOING        9 

panions  were.  Its  going  into  the  inclosure  was  in  no  way 
determined  by  the  forethought  of  the  child  or  conditioned 
by  any  systematic  effort  on  his  part.  It  chanced  to  run 
into  the  inclosure.  On  another  occasion  it  may  run  in 
the  opposite  direction.  In  either  case  the  child  should  not 
receive  credit  for  determining  the  particular  outcome  of  the 
chase. 

Suppose  on  the  other  hand  an  adult  who  has  long  cared 
for  chickens  undertakes  to  get  a  strayed  chicken  into  its 
pen.  He  will  probably  get  some  corn  and  scatter  it  near 
the  chicken.  After  a  little  he  will  scatter  it  nearer  and 
nearer  the  gate  until  the  victim  of  his  strategy  strolls  through 
the  opening  into  the  inclosure. 

The  results  of  these  two  acts  are  the  same.  The  processes 
are  decidedly  different.  The  first  result  was  one  of  chance. 
There  was  no  forethought,  no  reflection  on  the  reactive 
attitude  of  the  chicken,  no  anything,  except  undirected  and 
impulsive  energy.  The  result  was  one  of  chance,  not  one 
of  conscious  effort.  The  second  act  was  conditioned  by 
experience.  The  performer  had  observed  how  chickens 
react  when  food  is  thrown  before  them.  He  had  observed 
how  they  react  when  chased  or  when  thrown  at.  A  com- 
parison of  the  results  had  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that 
chickens  can  be  successfully  "tolled"  through  gates  and 
into  pens  by  means  of  properly  directed  grains  of  corn. 
There  was  no  chance  in  this  act.  There  was  a  certainty,  at 
least  as  much  of  a  certainty  as  accompanies  the  ordinary 
plans  of  life.  A  knowledge  of  chicken  behavior  which 
results  when  various  stimuli  are  applied  was  essential  to  the 
specific  results  acquired. 

In  like  manner  child  behavior  may  be  controlled  in  these 
two  ways  at  least.     By  chance  one  may  create  stimuli 


lO  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

which  cause  a  child  to  do  the  desired  thing,  or  to  acquire 
the  desired  knowledge.  In  this  case  the  child  learns,  but 
the  producer  of  the  chance  stimuli  does  not  teach.  The 
teaching  act  consists  of  something  more  specific.  It 
involves  an  under sta^iding  of  the  reactive  attitude  oj  the 
child. 

A  knowledge  of  the  child's  reactive  attitude,  like  that  of 
the  chicken,  is  gained  directly  or  indirectly  through  ex- 
perience. One  may  attain  it  through  introspecting  his 
own  response  to  stimuli  when  in  the  learning  period.  He 
may  attain  it  through  a  comparison  of  the  results  secured 
and  the  stimuli  employed  in  his  endeavor  to  teach  others. 
Through  experimentation  he  may  have  measured  carefully 
the  relative  value  of  stimuli  in  developing  abilities.  Indeed 
he  may  have  acquired  much  insight  into  the  secrets  of 
child  behavior  through  a  systematic  study  of  general  and 
genetic  psychology.  It  matters  little  how  this  knowledge 
is  secured,  but  it  is  important  that  it  be  possessed  by  the 
teacher. 

Knowledge  of  Appropriate  Stimuli.  —  A  knowledge  of 
an  adequate  social  aim,  a  knowledge  of  subject-matter, 
and  of  how  children  react  to  their  environment,  though 
essential  to  good  teaching,  are  not  sufficient.  A  knowledge 
of  appropriate  stimuli  is  a  fundamental  factor  also. 
Through  the  process  of  growth,  the  school  has  evolved 
economical  ways  and  means  of  securing  the  desired  reactions 
of  children.  These  accumulated  and  perfected  ways  and 
means  —  devices,  or  forms  of  stimuli  —  constitute  the  tech- 
nique of  classroom  procedure.  Skilled  technique  in  the 
classroom  is  quite  as  important  as  it  is  in  the  hospital  or 
in  the  laboratory.  Forms  of  presenting  subject-matter 
such  as  the  lecture  method,  textbook  method,  developing 


DISTINGUISHED    FROM   OTHER   FORMS   OF   DOING      II 

method,  or  combinations  of  these  methods ;  various  types 
of  questions ;  forms  of  expression  or  statements  employed 
in  mathematics,  or  in  language ;  illustrations,  dramatiza- 
tion, synthetic  and  analytic  approaches  to  phonograms, 
and  all  the  Hke  —  illustrate  what  is  meant  l^y  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  appropriate  stimuli  required  to  insure  efficient 
teaching.  ^. 

Skillful  Control  of  Stimuli.  —  Skill  in  directing  appro- 
priate stimuH  is  also  essential  to  good  teaching.  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  know  that  questions  to  be  effective  must  be 
concrete,  definite,  simple,  attractive,  and  problematic. 
Good  teaching  involves  power  to  use  such  questions.  It 
is  not  sufficient  to  know  that  self-activity  is  essential  to 
the  acquisition  of  power.  A  teacher  should  be  skilled  in 
the  use  of  the  devices  which  stimulate  self-activity.  It  is 
not  sufficient  to  know  that  comparison  is  a  most  effective 
device  for  stimulating  interest  and  forcing  generalizations. 
Teaching  involves  skill  in  forcing  comparisons  which  pro- 
voke thought.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  that  illustrations 
are  much  more  effective  than  explanations.  The  success- 
ful teacher  is  skilled  in  the  use  of  illustrations. 

It  is  in  this  phase  of  the  teaching  act  that  experience 
counts  for  most.  Skill  involves  the  formation  of  habits 
through  consistent  and  persistent  effort.  Long  and  con- 
sistent experience  is  needed  to  insure  dependable  and 
worthy  skill  in  the  use  of  teaching  devices. 

Enthusiasm  for  Teaching.  —  One  may  control  all  of  the 
above  factors  and  yet  be  a  relatively  poor  teacher.  The 
last  factor  in  the  process  of  analysis,  but  certainly  not  the 
last  in  order  of  importance,  is  that  of  enthusiasm  for  the 
process  of  teaching.  As  a  dynamic  phase  of  conduct  this 
factor  is  as  important  in  times  of  peace  as  in  times  of  war. 


12  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

It  is  as  fundamental  to  success  in  teaching  as  to  success  in 
fighting. 

Many  a  scholarly  teacher  has  been  unable  to  provoke 
thought  or  arouse  interest  because  of  a  lack  of  visible 
enthusiasm.  It  has  been  said  that  enthusiasm  is  con- 
tagious. Certainly  its  possession  by  the  teacher  arouses  a 
wholesome,  hearty  cooperation  on  the  part  of  children. 
Fortunate  is  the  teacher  who  has  an  abundant  enthusiasm 
in  his  work.  It  cannot  take  the  place  of  scholarship, 
skill,  and  the  other  factors,  for  they  are  essential.  It  can 
and  will  supplement  and  energize  them  and  make  them 
function. 

We  hear  much  of  personaUty  and  of  the  appeal  of  sub- 
ject-matter in  connection  with  the  teacher.  No  well- 
informed  person  will  attempt  to  belittle  their  importance 
in  the  teaching  act.  They  are  exceedingly  vital.  However, 
they  can  be  reached  only  through  the  procedure  outhned 
above.  One  can  scarcely  conceive  of  a  teacher  possessing 
a  poor  personahty,  so  far  as  it  pertains  to  teaching,  or  of 
his  faiUng  to  cause  the  subject-matter  to  appeal  to  children, 
if  he  possesses  a  mastery  of  these  teaching  factors  in  a 
superlative  degree.  Such  a  possession  insures  success  and 
it  will  go  far  to  determine  a  desirable  classroom  personality. 

Summary.  —  Let  us  summarize  the  factors  involved  in 
solving  an  ordinary  problem  and  those  involved  in  suc- 
cessfully teaching  one  to  solve  such  a  problem.  In  the 
successful  solution  of  an  ordinary  problem  the  performer 
has  a  definite  aim,  a  knowledge  of  the  materials,  skill  in 
adjusting  the  materials  to  the  end  in  view,  and  enough 
enthusiasm  to  keep  him  on  the  job  until  the  aim  is  realized. 

In  order  to  teach  successfully  the  teacher  will  need  to 
control  the  factors  involved  in  doing  and  in  addition  to  these 


DISTINGUISHED    FROM   OTHER   FORMS   OF  DOING      13 

factors  he  will  need  to  know  the  social  aim  of  education, 
the  structure  and  function  of  subject-matter,  the  reactive 
attitude  of  children,  and  the  stimuli  best  suited  to  occasion 
the  desired  reactions ;  to  possess  skill  in  the  employment 
of  these  stimuh,  and  to  have  an  unabating  enthusiasm  for 
the  process  of  transforming  children  through  these  agencies 
from  what  they  are  to  what  they  ought  to  become. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  AIMS   OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING 

The  Goal  of  Instruction.  —  In  an  era  of  unparalleled 
economic  progress  in  which  scientific  principles  are  applied 
with  precision  and  results  are  measured  in  absolute  units, 
it  is  only  natural  that  one  should  hear  much  of  educative 
aims  and  educative  values.  The  application  of  business 
methods  to  the  work  of  the  schoolroom  has  forced  the  edu- 
cationist out  into  the  open.  In  order  to  meet  the  practical 
demands  made  upon  him  he  is  obliged  to  define  clearly  the 
goal  of  instruction  and  its  relation  to  social  needs,  and  to 
point  out  clearly  the  educative  processes  by  which  it  is 
attained  most  economically. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  exponents  of  educational 
theory  have  had  different  basic  experiences  and  different 
training,  it  is  not  strange  that  there  is  a  lack  of  complete 
agreement  as  to  the  function  of  public  education.  And  while 
a  complete  agreement  is  somewhat  remote,  it  is  essential  to 
progress  that  a  working  hypothesis  based  upon  the  best 
that  is  accepted  in  education  be  established  for  the  purpose 
of  rationalizing  teaching.  It  is  now  widely  recognized 
that  the  school  was  and  is  established  by  society  to  subserve 
its  ends ;  that  these  ends  are  relative  and  not  absolute  in 
quality,  depending  entirely  upon  the  social  conditions  and 
upon  the  insight  of  the  members  who  constitute  the  school 
units. 

14 


THE  AIMS   OF   PUBLIC-SCHOOL   TEACHING  1 5 

Dynamic  Aspect  of  the  Teacher's  Aims.  —  It  must  be 
apparent  at  the  outset  that  the  ends  or  aims  of  instruction 
on  the  content  side  are  dynamic  in  character,  since  society 
is  constantly  undergoing  change.  From  the  simple  life  of 
the  tent-dweller  and  herder  with  its  few  yet  significant 
responsibilities  to  the  highly  specialized  life  of  the  urbanite 
with  definite  social,  economic,  and  poHtical  responsibili- 
ties, society  has  steadily  grown  more  complex.  With  this 
increased  complexity  have  come  new  demands  and  new 
standards  of  measurement,  resulting  in  higher  degrees  of 
efficiency.  Efficiency  in  one  decade  usually  proves  to  be 
inefl&ciency  in  another.  The  musket  was  an  efficient 
instrument  of  war  in  competition  with  the  bow  and  arrow. 
It  is  decidedly  inefficient  in  rivalry  with  the  modern  machine 
gun.  To  meet  adequately  the  changing  needs  of  society 
the  standards  of  the  school  must  be  flexible  and  responsive 
to  such  needs. 

Static  Aspect  of  the  Teacher's  Aims.  —  The  aims  of 
instruction  are  also  static  in  character.  Viewed  from  the 
form  side,  they  are  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever. 
Just  as  the  the  word  "  man  "  will  always  represent  the  human 
animal  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  is  constantly  evolving, 
so  "efficiency,"  "achievement,"  "adjustment,"  and  "com- 
plete living,"  if  satisfactory  forms  of  expression  now,  should 
always  be  satisfactory. 

An  Apparent  Diversity  in  the  Aims  of  Instruction.  —  Ed- 
ucational philosophers  have  been  groping  about  for  an 
all-inclusive  notion  of  the  aim  of  education.  Considering 
personal  prejudices,  differences  in  experience  and  ability, 
due  to  differences  in  social  and  natural  inheritance,  it  is 
encouraging  to  note  the  strong  resemblances  in  the  educa- 
tional conceptions  which  have  been  held  by  relatively  re- 


1 6  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

cent  writers.  More  than  fifty  years  ago,  Herbert  Spencer 
pointed  out  that  it  is  the  function  of  education  to  prepare 
one  for  "complete  living."^  Four  decades  later  Professor 
Hanus  similarly  expressed  the  belief  that  "complete 
living"^  is  the  aim  of  education.  Continuing,  he  said, 
"To  live  completely  means  to  be  as  useful  as  possible  and 
to  be  happy.  ...  By  usefulness  is  meant  service,  that  is, 
any  activity  which  promotes  the  material  or  the  spiritual 
interests  of  mankind,  one  or  both.  To  be  happy  one  must 
enjoy  both  his  work  and  his  leisure."  Thorndike  similarly 
held  the  aim  of  education  to  be  "  Good  will  to  man,  useful 
and  happy  Hves,  and  noble  enjoyment."'' 

O'Shea  and  Ruediger  maintained  that  "adjustment" 
is  the  ultimate  aim  of  education.  The  former  said:  "The 
real  function  of  the  school  is  to  adjust  the  individual  to 
his  environment  —  physical,  industrial,  and  social. "  *  The 
latter  expressed  himself  thus  :  "The  aim  of  education  may 
be  defined  as  the  adjustment  of  the  individual  to  the  life 
in  which  he  must  participate,  this  Hfe  being  considered  both 
in  its  objective  and  subjective  aspects."  ^  Viewing  the  same 
problem  from  a  slightly  different  angle  Bagley  held  that 
"Social  efficiency  ...  is  the  standard  by  which  the  forces 
of  education  must  select  the  experiences  that  are  to  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  individual."^ 

Charters  maintained  that  "Appreciation  and  control  of 
the  values  of  life"   are  the  goal  of   educational    effort.' 

*  Education,  Spencer.    Page  31. 

'  Educational  A  ims  attd  Educational  Values,  Hanus.     Chap.  I. 

'  Principles  of  Teaching,  Thorndike.     Chap.  I. 

■*  Education  as  Adjustment,  O'Shea.     Chaps.  V  and  VI. 

*  Principles  of  Education,  Ruediger.     Chap.  III. 

*  The  Ethical  End  of  Education  and  The  Educative  Process,  Bagley. 
"^  Methods  of  Teaching,  Charters.     Chap.  I. 


THI'    AIMS  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  1 7 

Snedden  with  a  later  word  upon  the  subject  declared  that 
the  school  should  create  ability  to  "produce  and  utiUze 
production."  ^ 

Social  Efficiency  a  Working  Aim.  —  A  comparison  of  these 
statements  of  the  aim  of  education  forces  the  conclusion 
that  there  is  a  closer  agreement  than  a  casual  examination 
indicates.  These  statements  differ  mainly  in  emphasis 
and  in  form  of  expression.  All  of  these  authors  are  keenly 
conscious  of  the  social  aspects  of  the  school.  The  aim  of 
each  has  a  specific  social  reference.  The  distinctive  social 
bearing  of  each  of  these  aims  indicates  the  universality  of 
social  efficiency  as  an  aim  of  teaching. 

Social  efficiency  in  the  bulk  is  a  mere  vagary  and  as  such 
is  of  Kttle  value  to  him  who  needs  a  definite,  concrete 
standard  with  which  to  evaluate  the  results  of  teaching. 
Only  when  it  has  a  definite  reference  for  teachers  in  service 
is  it  effective  as  a  factor  in  method.  It  is  essential,  there- 
fore, that  social  efficiency  be  understood  in  all  its  ramifica- 
tions and  that  it  have  "synthetic  connections  with  all  the 
individuals  to  which  it  refers,"  if  it  is  to  be  a  positive  help 
to  teachers  in  service. 

Social  Needs 

One  is  economically  efficient  when  his  appreciation  and 
control  are  in  harmony  with  his  economic  needs.  One  is 
likewise  socially  efficient  when  his  appreciation  and  con- 
trol are  in  harmony  with  the  needs  of  the  social  unit  of  which 
he  is  a  member.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  school 
must  be  clearly  aware  of  the  fundamental  needs  of  the  social 
unit  which  maintains  it  before  it  can  proceed  effectively  to 
educate  the  children  of  such  a  social  unit. 
*  Educational  Readjustment,  Snedden. 


1 8  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

For  a  satisfactory  solution  of  a  problem  in  any  field  of 
endeavor  one  must  go  back  to  original  sources  for  founda- 
tion principles.  To  discover  the  essential  values  of  society 
he  must  examine  the  fundamental  needs  of  the  social 
structure,  since  they  are  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of  all 
organized  educative  and  objective  effort  which  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  group  manifest  through  some  form  of 
cooperation. 

The  Interpretative  Need 

A  careful  observation  of  organized  society  reveals  the 
necessity  of  adequate  physical  and  social  adaptation.  But 
adequate  adaptation  imphes  adequate  interpretation.  The 
interpretative  need  of  society  has  precedence  over  its  other 
needs  since  it  is  basic  to  all  other  needs.  Until  an  individual 
is  able  to  interpret  rightly  his  natural  and  social  environ- 
ment he  is  unable  to  contribute  consistently  to  his  own  wel- 
fare and  to  that  of  his  fellows.  "Adequate  interpretation" 
depends  primarily  upon  basic  experience  and  a  mastery  of 
the  tools  of  interpretation. 

The  Language  Tool.  —  Since  one  cannot  make  rapid  or 
extended  progress  \vithout  comparing  the  experiences  of 
the  race  with  his  own,  it  is  evident  that  practically  the  first 
step  in  formal  education  is  to  acquaint  the  child  with  the 
keys  which  unlock  these  experiences.  Without  the  help  of 
conventional  symbols  with  which  to  interpret  thought, 
each  individual  will  need  to  start  at  the  beginning,  thus 
being  barred  from  the  experiences  of  others,  the  basic  rung 
of  progress. 

Basic  Experiences.  —  It  is  absurd  to  think  of  a  language 
without  the  experience  or  content  side.  A  symbol  implies 
both  form  and  content.     The  early  part  of  a  child's  life  is 


THE  AIMS  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  19 

spent  in  acquiring  notions  and  in  associating  them  with 
accepted  oral  symbols.  In  so  far  as  these  notions  and  sym- 
bols are  in  accord  with  accepted  usage  the  child  is  making 
rapid  progress  in  the  control  of  its  environment.  The 
symbols  introduced  by  the  school  are  strangely  new. 
Marks,  now,  as  well  as  sounds  are  associated  with  the  no- 
tions already  in  stock.  The  child's  early  school  experiences 
represent  his  effort  in  making  associations  between  written 
symbols  and  his  ideas.  Too  often  the  method  employed 
to  aid  him  in  acquiring  the  written  symbol  causes  him  to 
short-circuit  the  written  with  the  oral  symbol,  thus  making 
it  Httle  more  than  a  "sounding  brass  or  a  tinkling  cymbal." 
Many  of  the  more  recent  devices  in  elementary  reading  are 
employed  to  correct  some  phase  of  this  evil. 

From  this  early  beginning,  throughout  the  school  life  of  the 
pupil,  there  is  a  constant  effort  on  the  part  of  the  school  to 
increase  his  efficiency  in  the  use  of  language.  Fundamental 
conventional  symbols,  basic  to  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
formal  language  lessons,  composition,  rhetoric,  and  grammar, 
are  the  tools  which  the  child  should  have  in  his  interpretative 
kit.  With  these  tools  fairly  well  mastered,  the  experiences 
of  the  race  are  accessible  to  him.  Through  a  study  of  the 
natural  sciences  he  learns  to  interpret  the  forces  of  nature ; 
through  a  study  of  mathematics  he  learns  to  control 
quantitative  relations ;  through  a  study  of  history,  civics, 
Uterature,  painting,  sculpture,  and  music,  he  learns  to 
interpret  the  thoughts  and  emotions  of  men. 

A  Research  Ideal.  —  Though  skill  in  the  use  of  a  language 
in  the  broader  sense  will  help  one  to  interpret  adequately 
the  sciences  and  arts  as  organized  and  expressed  by  man,  it 
will  not  necessarily  lead  to  that  more  subtle  and  original 
interpretation  of  fundamental  principles  which  is  essential 


20  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

to  discovery  and  invention.  This  form  of  interpretation 
depends  upon  a  research  ideal,  or  what  recently  has  been 
termed  the  "scientific  attitude  of  mind."  To  interpret 
the  sciences  as  man  understands  them  is  only  to  keep  step 
with  human  progress ;  to  interpret  them  in  an  original  way 
is  to  be  the  vanguard  of  progress  itself. 

One  who  possesses  the  research  ideal  in  a  particular  field 
of  thought  is  free  from  the  traditional  thought  and  emotions 
that  hamper  truth  in  that  field.  One  so  mentally  con- 
stituted will  never  incite  a  mob,  though  he  will  demand  an 
investigation  of  the  charges  preferred  against  the  culprit. 
He  will  not  subscribe  to  partisan  politics  simply  because 
it  is  partisan.  He  will  never  be  found  in  a  band  of  reli- 
gious enthusiasts  who  have  solved  the  problem  of  religion 
in  their  own  particular  way  ;  neither  will  he  imitate  a  moral 
code.  Fundamental  principles  rather  than  popular  accept- 
ance will  influence  the  choice  of  his  standards.  Ethically 
he  will  search  for  and  examine  data  that  throw  light 
upon  the  abiding  principles  underlying  conduct.  In  brief, 
the  scientific  attitude  of  mind  is  a  longing  to  search 
for  truth,  including  an  effective  mental  habit  of  approach- 
ing it.  It  is  directly  opposed  to  emotional  attitudes, 
prejudices,  instinctive  impulses,  and  habitual  judgments. 
Many  have  a  clear  notion  of  the  importance  of  this 
quality  of  mind,  though  relatively  few  have  attained  it  in 
a  functional  way. 

At  the  very  end  of  more  than  a  hundred  years  of  brilliant 
achievement  in  the  pure  and  applied  sciences,  it  seems  rather 
strange  that  this  ideal  does  not  prevail  more  extensively. 
The  method  most  needed  to  create  it  is  of  such  a  character 
that  it  must  be  supplied  by  experts  in  educational 
psychology.     One  thing  seems  probable,  however,  and  that 


THE  AIMS  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  21 

is  that  method  is  a  more  significant  factor  than  subject- 
matter,  in  its  formation.  It  is  also  fairly  well  established 
that  a  research  habit  acquired  in  a  specific  field  will  not  trans- 
fer in  full  to  another  field.  For  example,  it  is  common 
observation  that  many  professors  in  the  universities  who 
hold  their  positions  and  sustain  their  reputations  on  the 
research  work  which  they  have  done,  conduct  their  recita- 
tions in  a  way  that  is  anytliing  but  conducive  to  the  habit 
of  research  and  self-activity.  A  research  ideal,  not  a  re- 
search habit,  will  function  in  distinctly  different  types  of 
work. 

The  research  work  that  is  often  done  by  assistants  in 
the  colleges  and  the  universities  has  produced  some  excellent 
results.  It  has  carried  over  to  many  of  the  elementary 
schools  which  are  directing  some  experiments,  the  prime 
object  of  which  is  to  estabhsh  this  scientific  ideal.  We  have 
scarcely  begun  in  this  field  of  endeavor. 

The  interpretative  need  includes  a  mastery  of  the  language, 
an  abundance  of  basic  experiences,  and  a  research  ideal. 

Skill  an  Important  Need 

Though  it  is  essential  that  each  individual  of  society 
adequately  interpret  his  natural  and  social  environment, 
it  is  equally  essential  that  he  employ  such  knowledge  for 
the  betterment  of  society ;  that  he  turn  it  to  some  worthy 
account.  In  order  that  this  may  be  realized,  more  and  more 
time  has  been  given  to  the  apphed  arts  and  sciences  by 
educative  agencies.   , 

The  scientific  output  of  the  two  centuries  just  passed, 
culminating  in  the  brilliant  achievements  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  19th  century,  reveals  the  possibihties  of  our  natural 


22  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

resources.  The  application  of  science  has  transformed  the 
world,  and  by  so  doing  has  imposed  new  responsibilities 
upon  society.  This  transformation  has  created  a  need 
for  a  high  degree  of  skill  on  every  hand.  It  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  in  the  schools  throughout  the  country  there 
is  an  increasing  number  of  commercial  high  schools,  depart- 
ments of  agriculture,  home  economics,  manual  training, 
and  trade  schools,  both  elementary  and  secondary.  These 
new  departments  are  evidence  that  the  school  is  endeavor- 
ing to  develop  this  phase  of  social  efficiency. 

Fundamentals  Reduced  to  Habit.  —  The  adjustment  of  the 
school  to  meet  these  needs  has  made  those  who  guide  the 
schools  keenly  sensitive  to  the  importance  of  habit,  either 
as  mechanical  skill  or  as  a  consistent  mental  attitude.  In 
every  subject  there  are  certain  fundamental  elements  upon 
which  the  rest  of  the  structure  depends.  To  neglect  these 
is  to  insure  wasted  energy.  One  cannot  proceed  far  in 
arithmetic  without  habituating  the  four  fundamentals, 
tables  in  denominate  numbers,  the  meaning  of  percentum, 
the  relation  of  the  base,  rate,  and  percentage,  and  the  rela- 
tion of  the  radius  to  the  circumference.  Neither  can  one 
proceed  far  in  geography  without  knowing  the  directions, 
latitude,  longitude,  the  physics  of  air  and  water  currents, 
and  principles  involved  in  the  distribution  of  water.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  there  is  so  little  accurate  knowledge 
of  what  constitutes  these  essentials.  The  fundamentals 
should  be  as  clearly  marked  out  in  geography,  history,  and 
physiology  as  they  are  in  arithmetic.  When  clearly  de- 
fined, as  in  arithmetic,  it  is  the  business  of  teachers  to  see 
to  it  that  they  are  habituated. 

Within  relatively  recent  years  some  worthy  plans  for 
the  teaching  of  habits  have  been  formulated.     Professor 


THE  AIMS   OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  23 

James  was  a  pioneer  in  this  field. ^  The  most  complete 
method  of  teaching  habits  that  has  appeared  is  Rowe's 
work  entitled  Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teach- 
ing?' It  was  a  much  needed  contribution  in  this  field. 
This  explicit  work  in  the  method  of  habit  formation  is 
an  indication  of  the  social  need  of  accurate  and  unerring 
habits  in  the  fundamentals.  Method  in  habit  formation 
is  the  response  of  the  school  to  an  economic  need  of 
society.  This  need  finds  expression  in  the  trade  schools, 
where  skill  in  planning,  executing,  and  manipulating 
materials  and  tools  is  required.  Skill  insures  a  maximum 
output  of  good  quaUty  with  a  minimum  amount  of  energy 
expended. 

Socializing  Need 

In  a  decidedly  commercial  age  there  is  great  danger  that 
the  socializing  need  of  society  may  not  be  realized.  Self- 
interest,  economic  competition,  and  specialization  are  likely 
to  dwarf  the  broad  humanitarian  feelings  which  serve  as 
the  warp  and  woof  of  permanent  social  progress.  Without 
social  sympathy,  skill,  the  abihty  to  interpret,  and  the 
power  to  satisfy  other  needs  will  not  insure  a  permanent 
progress. 

With  the  application  of  steam,  electricity,  and  gasoHne, 
on  land,  water,  and  in  the  air,  social  conditions  and  possi- 
bihties  have  been  modified  and  complicated  beyond  the 
hmit  of  the  most  prophetic  vision  of  one  hundred  years 
ago.  Modern  applications  of  natural  forces  have  brought 
the  wheat  fields  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  the  orange 
groves  of  Florida  and  California,  the  vegetables  of  Texas 

*  Psychology,  James.     Chap.  X. 

*  Habit  Formation  atid  the  Science  of  Teaching,  Rowe. 


24  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

and  Tennessee,  and  the  corn  fields  of  Iowa,  Kansas,  and 
Illinois,  through  various  distributing  points,  into  close  touch 
with  each  other,  and  thus  made  it  possible  for  the  producers 
of  each  to  share  the  products  of  all.  The  necessity  of  a 
clearing  house  for  all  of  these  products  has  made  such  cities 
as  Chicago,  Duluth,  Minneapolis,  and  St.  Louis  possible, 
and  thus  made  necessary  the  high  degree  of  specialization 
required  to  produce  and  transport  the  products  of  the  soil 
and  their  accessories. 

The  forms  of  speciahzation  that  have  grown  up  as  the 
immediate  and  direct  result  of  the  improved  facilities  for 
producing  and  transporting  materials  are  closely  related 
to  the  whole  problem  of  social  solidarity.  Since  improved 
methods  of  transportation  have  made  great  cities  possible, 
they  have  been  the  means  of  throwing  human  beings  together 
in  great  aggregations  without  suggesting  how  they  are  to 
be  made  agreeable  to  each  other,  happy  with  their  lot,  and 
helpful  to  the  group  of  which  they  are  a  part.  "The  most 
immediate  effect  of  specialization  is  that  of  individualism." 
It  seems  a  case  of  history  repeating  itself.  Were  there 
countless  acres  of  unclaimed  lands,  urbanization  with  its 
complicated  problems  would  not  be  so  alarming,  but  with 
the  rapidly  growing  urban  population,  economic  segregation 
is  being  enhanced  and  social  vice  is  assuming  alarming  pro- 
portions. In  these  days  of  speciahzation,  the  "Jack  at 
all  trades"  is  exceedingly  rare.  Though  energy  has  been 
conserved,  the  output  increased,  and  its  quahty  improved  by 
specialization,  nevertheless  speciahzation  has  narrowed  the 
perspective,  and  congealed  the  social  sympathy  of  those 
who  have  become  thus  specialized. 

Economically,  society  should  not  and  will  not  go  back 
to  the  sickle  and  flail.     In  all  probabihty  it  will  become  much 


THE  AIMS   OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL   TEACHING  25 

more  highly  specialized  than  at  present.  It  is  up  to  the 
agencies  of  formal  education  to  adapt  themselves  to  the 
inevitable.  They  must  counteract  the  effect  of  the  changed 
order.  The  individual  who  performs  a  mere  fraction  of  the 
world's  labor  is  apt  to  develop  an  abnormal  notion  of  the 
rights,  both  individual  and  social,  of  others. 

Social  Sympathy.  —  Social  sympathy  is  a  response  to 
social  cooperation.  When  it  is  neglected  or  prevented, 
feehngs  become  dwarfed  and  perverted.  Altruistic  feelings 
are  the  by-product  of  contributory  acts  that  are  willingly 
exerted  for  the  welfare  of  others,  without  any  thought  of 
personal  gain.  An  intelHgent  social  sympathy  is  made 
possible  only  through  direct  contact  with  the  life  work  of 
others.  Without  such  a  contact  one's  attitude  is  sure  to  be 
sentimental,  indifferent,  or  unsympathetic.  One  who  has 
never  pressed  the  shovel  until  the  blisters  formed  or  bent 
the  back  until  it  ached,  cannot  correctly  sympathize  with 
the  miners  who  ask  for  a  shorter  day  and  a  higher  wage. 
The  urbanite  who  has  taken  his  agricultural  course  from 
an  observation  car,  is  apt  to  think  of  the  farmer  as  a  "  tight- 
wad," who  sits  about  and  enjoys  waving  fields  of  grain  and 
lowing  herds,  and  consequently  is  undeserving  of  the  enor- 
mous prices  which  he  exacts  from  his  city  brother.  On 
the  other  hand  the  devotee  of  the  farm  who  has  only 
seen  the  city  through  the  show  window  or  the  beautifully 
kept  lawns,  is  sure  to  feel  that  the  path  of  the  urbanite 
is  one  of  ease  and  luxury  made  possible  by  his  exorbitant 
prices. 

With  these  social  abnormahties  flourishing,  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  those  who  are  responsible  for  the  training  of  future 
generations  to  recognize  and  apply  principles  that  make  for 
a  social  solidarity.     The  school  has  already  anticipated 


26  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

this  problem  and  is  making  some  headway  in  its  solution. 
It  has  set  for  itself  the  task  of  supplying  the  great  basic  ex- 
periences from  which  social  sympathy  springs,  those  which 
speciahzation  is  denying  the  adult.  It  was  largely  for  this 
purpose  that  manual  training,  including  all  forms  of  wood 
and  metal  work,  domestic  science  and  the  household  arts, 
economic  nature  study  and  scientific  agriculture,  printing, 
modehng,  and  work  in  textiles  were  introduced.  Doubtless 
they  help  young  people  find  themselves  and  thus  often  give 
a  bent  to  future  vocation,  but  at  the  same  time  they  are 
the  means  of  creating  a  social  sympathy  which  will  function 
for  the  betterment  of  the  group  regardless  of  later  vocational 
limitations. 

The  Ethical  Need 

One  may  have  the  ability  to  discover  truth,  he  may  be 
skilled  in  the  applied  sciences  and  arts,  he  may  have  a  syin- 
pathetic  understanding  of  the  work  and  rights  of  others,  and 
yet  be  a  menace  to  society.  Indeed  some  of  our  greatest 
criminals  have  had  one  or  more  of  these  quaKties  highly 
developed.  There  is  a  manifest  need  that  one's  acts  be 
consistent  with  his  judgment.  That  "ye  shall  know  the 
truth  and  the  truth  shall  make  you  free,"  is  only  subjec- 
tively true.  Shakespeare  gave  expression  to  this  thought 
in  the  character  and  speech  of  Hamlet.  The  more  clearly 
Hamlet  saw  the  truth  the  less  able  was  he  to  realize  it. 
He  chided  himself  thus : 

"I  am  pigeon-livered  and  lack  gall 
To  make  oppression  bitter,  or  ere  this 
I  should  have  fatted  all  the  region  kites 
With  this  slave's  offal.     Bloody,  bawdy  villain  ! 
Remorseless,  treacherous,  lecherous,  kindless  villain ! 
O  Vengeance ! 


THE   AIMS  OF   PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  27 

Why,  what  an  ass  am  I !     This  is  most  brave, 
That  I,  the  son  of  a  dear  father  murder'd, 
Prompted  to  my  revenge  by  heaven  and  hell, 
Must   .   .  .  unpack  my  heart  with  words, 
And  fall  a  cursing  like  a  very  drab, 
A  scullion !" 

Good  intentions  w^ill  not  insure  the  proper  ethical  conduct. 
It  is  essential  that  judgment  be  supported  with  adequate 
volitional  stimuli.  Moral  efl&ciency  includes  doing  one's 
duty  as  well  as  knowing  and  feeling  one's  duty. 

Ideals  and  Prejudices.  —  For  effective  ethical  stimuli  we 
must  turn  to  ideals  and  prejudices  in  which  the  emotional 
element  is  more  pronounced.  These  ideals  and  prejudices 
must  be  sufl&ciently  strong  to  crystallize  ideas  and  force 
them  into  action  in  order  to  determine  the  character  of 
conduct.  In  this  connection  Professor  Bagley  says:  "In 
essence,  an  ideal  is  an  idea  that  controls  conduct  in  virtue 
of  its  emotional  warmth  rather  than  in  virtue  of  its  intel- 
lectual clearness.  .   .  } 

"This  distinction  is  difficult  to  define  in  accurate  terms, 
but  it  is  dear  enough  from  a  practical  standpoint.  A 
man  may  know  or  believe,  as  a  matter  of  intellectual  judg- 
ment, that  civic  purity,  for  example,  is  essential  to  the  high- 
est type  of  civic  life,  but  even  with  fraud  and  corruption 
rife  in  the  local  politics  of  his  community,  he  may  not  take 
the  slighest  step  toward  remedying  conditions.  In  other 
words,  the  intellectual  belief  is  not  sufficient  in  itself  to  spur 
him  to  action.  Suppose,  however,  that  civic  corruption 
menaces  some  fundamental  interest  of  life,  .  .  .  threatens 
to  destroy  one's  business  or  reduce  the  value  of  his  real 
estate,  or  invade  his  home,  immediately  his  idea  of  its  evil 

^  Educative  Values,  Bagley. 


28  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

character  becomes  a  strong  positive  ideal  in  favor  of  civic 
virtue,  which  incites  him  to  effort  towards  its  reaUzation. 
The  emotional  force  engendered  by  the  stimulation  of  a 
fundamental  instinct  has  gathered  about  the  idea  and 
turned  it  into  a  definite  dynamic  standard,  a  positive 
prejudice  in  favor  of  a  virtue,  the  rationality  of  which  he 
has  always  admitted." 

It  is  quite  certain  that  there  are  many  ethical  conclusions 
which  the  race  has  found  too  fundamental  to  admit  of 
experimentation  by  its  youth.  It  has  acquired  these  ex- 
periences at  a  great  expense  and  sufhce  it  for  the  child  to 
take  its  conclusions  on  faith.  It  is  the  business  of  educa- 
tional forces  to  generate  sufficiently  strong  ideals  and  preju- 
dices in  the  young  to  safeguard  their  after  Hfe  and  conse- 
quently insure  protection  of  the  group  as  a  whole.  I 
refer  to  such  universally  accepted  virtues  as  honesty, 
industry,  fidehty,  and  chastity.  The  person  who  questions 
the  worth  of  these  virtues  has  little  comprehension  of  social 
responsibiUty. 

The  welfare  of  society  demands  that  these  virtues  be 
controlled  by  such  dominating  ideals  and  prejudices  that 
there  will  always  be  the  same  inevitable  reaction  when  a 
temptation  occurs.  These  reactions  must  be  automatic 
and  positive.  The  clerk  who  permits  himself  to  think  of 
the  good  use  he  can  make  of  his  employer's  money  is  running 
a  desperate  risk ;  the  person  who  constantly  says  to  him- 
self that  the  world  owes  him  a  living,  ultimately  is  inviting 
poorhouse  supervision ;  the  politician  who  permits  himself 
to  consider  the  possibility  of  using  a  public  trust  for  private 
gain  is  far  on  the  road  to  corrupt  methods ;  and  the  young 
woman  who  permits  herself  to  question  the  social  sanction 
of  chastity  will  need  greater  strength  of  character  than 


THE  AIMS   OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  29 

she  who  acts  automatically  in  accord  with  the  social 
sanction. 

These  virtues  have  cost  the  race  entirely  too  much  to  be 
experimented  with.  Educative  forces,  and  we  have  the 
school  especially  in  mind,  must  create  emotional  controls 
sufficiently  strong  to  safeguard  them.  Disloyal  conduct 
during  the  World  War  is  indicative  of  the  fact  that  what  we 
need  most  is  not  more  intelligence,  but  higher  ideals  and 
stronger  prejudices  of  the  right  sort. 

Hawthorne,  in  "The  Great  Stone  Face,"  set  forth  in  no 
uncertain  language  the  effect  of  an  ideal  upon  conduct, 
and  likewise  the  effect  of  conduct  upon  an  ideal.  Through 
long  years  of  watching  and  expectancy  Ernest  developed  a 
strong  passion  for  the  Great  Stone  Face.  ''So  strong  was 
this  passion,"  the  author  tells  us,  "that  finally  his  face, 
transformed  by  it,  assumed  a  grandeur  of  expression  so 
full  of  benevolence,  that  the  Poet,  by  an  irresistible  impulse, 
threw  up  his  hands,  and  shouted :  '  Ernest  is  himself  the 
likeness  of  the  Great  Stone  Face.'  " 

Human  thoughts  and  acts,  whether  they  be  directed 
toward  unworthy  ends  or  toward  noble  purposes,  will 
ultimately  establish  a  background  of  feeling  which  is  a 
powerful  force  in  the  determination  of  human  motives  and 
hence  of  human  conduct.  It  behooves  the  agencies  of 
formal  education  to  see  to  it  that  the  fundamental  human  vir- 
tues be  held  constantly  before  those  who  are  being  educated 
that  right  feelings  be  engendered.  Doubtless  method  is  more 
potent  than  subject-matter  in  fixing  these  ideals  and 
prejudices.  Certain  subjects  and  practices  are  especially 
valuable  in  this  connection.  Biography,  literature,  civ- 
ics, school  organizations,  schoolroom  methods,  and  the 
teacher  are  all  potent  influences  for  better  conduct  controls. 


3©  the  essentials  of  good  teaching 

The  Culture  Need 

An  introspection  of  the  motives  that  have  stimulated 
educative  ejffort  down  through  the  ages  reveals  a  marked 
emphasis  upon  what  is  generally  termed  culture.  Society 
has  always  felt  a  need  for  the  cultural  value  in  educa- 
tion, though  it  has  not  always  been  consistent  in  attaining 
it.  Since  cultivated  men  have  generally  been  familiar  with 
the  classics  the  inference  has  been  that  the  classics  are  the 
main  source  of  "culture."  This  erroneous  inference  has 
been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  with 
sufficient  vitality  to  control  largely  the  content  of  the 
curriculum.  Doubtless  the  classics  were  the  only  organized 
source  of  contact  which  cultivated  men  had  immediately 
following  the  awakening  of  the  Renaissance,  and  were 
therefore  the  only  source  of  culture.  By  no  other  means 
could  one  sit  at  the  feet  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Dante, 
or  converse  with  Cicero  and  Virgil. 

The  intellectual  awakening  of  the  seventeenth,  eighteenth, 
and  nineteenth  centuries,  resulting  in  scientific  research, 
and  in  a  broad  application  of  the  sciences  and  arts,  trans- 
formed social  and  economic  conditions,  and  thus  gave  to 
culture  a  healthy  tone  and  a  vigorous  content.  It  was  no 
longer  necessary  to  go  back  to  Aristotle  for  natural  philos- 
ophy, or  to  Solon  for  guiding  principles  in  government. 
Truth  unfolded  on  every  hand.  Man  reacted  intelligently 
to  natural  law,  and  became  conscious  of  his  intricate  social 
obHgations.  He  ceased  to  imitate  traditional  practices, 
and  began  to  construct  his  own  philosophy  of  life  in  terms 
of  the  generally  accepted  principles  of  his  day. 

Culture  began  to  be  interpreted  differently  in  the  light 
of  new  conditions.     As  Professor  Hanus  has  pointed  out. 


THE  AIMS  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  31 

"culture  now  means,  primarily,  the  capacity  to  under- 
stand, appreciate,  and  react  on  the  resources  and  problems 
of  modern  civilization.  These  resources  and  problems  are 
found  in  the  preservation  and  improvement  of  the  health, 
physical  vigor,  and  physical  well-being  of  the  race ;  in 
modern  government ;  in  modern  industry  and  commerce ; 
in  modern  literature  and  languages  ...  in  history  .  .  .  and  in 
the  art  treasures  of  all  time."  ^  While  the  classics  are  still 
believed  to  afford  contact  with  cultivated  persons  and  to 
this  extent  supply  opportunities  for  '^culture,"  it  is  not 
generally  beheved  to-day  that  they  constitute  the  only 
means  of  culture.  With  the  decline  in  the  need  for  the 
information  offered  by  the  classics,  they  were  justified  on 
other  grounds.  It  was  argued  that  they  were  especially 
rich  in  the  stimuh  that  develop  mental  power.  Hence 
"culture"  began  to  mean  power  or  capacity,  and  "  cultural," 
objectively  apphed,  meant  quaHty  to  stimulate  mental 
growth.  Though  no  one  is  wilhng  to  deny  that  the  classics 
stimulate  growth,  few  indeed  are  wilHng  to  grant  that  they 
are  richer  in  such  stimuli  than  are  the  applied  sciences  and 
the  mechanical  arts. 

It  is  as  great  a  mark  of  culture  in  these  days  of  scientific 
knowledge  to  maintain  good  health  and  physical  vigor  as  to 
be  familiar  with  Greek  and  Latin ;  to  understand  and  apply 
natural  law  as  to  be  conversant  with  the  laws  of  the  Medes 
and  the  Persians ;  to  eat,  dress,  sleep,  and  spend  one's 
leisure  intelligently  and  gracefully  as  to  know  the  distinct 
types  of  Greek  art. 

Culture  as  now  interpreted  means  more  than  ability  to 
"understand"  and  "appreciate,"  it  means  the  skill  and 
disposition  to  do,  as  well,  —  the  power  to  react  intelUgently 

'  Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values,  Hanus. 


32  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

in  response  to  stimuli.  Our  secondary  curricula  are  grad- 
ually being  adjusted  to  this  end.  The  old  "cultural  sub- 
jects" are  being  supplemented  and  occasionally  displaced 
by  subjects  which  more  adequately  prepare  one  to  solve 
the  practical  problems  of  daily  Ufe.  This  change  is  in 
response  to  the  saner  notion  of  what  constitutes  "cul- 
ture," and  it  is  well  that  it  is  so.  "When  a  child  has  en- 
tered into  its  inheritance,  physical,  scientific,  Uterary, 
aesthetic,  institutional,  and  religious — then  we  must  use  the 
word  'culture'  to  signify  the  state  of  being  that  has  been 
attained."  To  the  extent  that  the  children  of  the  public 
schools  reach  this  goal,  to  that  extent  can  it  be  said  that 
the  school  is  meeting  the  "cultural  need"  of  society. 

Summary.  —  The  aim  of  education  in  its  broadest  sense 
involves  both  a.  personal  and  an  impersonal,  or  social,  aspect. 
This  twofold  character  of  the  aim  of  education  is  the  source 
of  the  disagreement  as  to  what  this  aim  is.  Since  society 
as  such  is  the  only  agency  sustaining  organized  educational 
effort  there  is  no  need  for  considering  the  personal,  or  indi- 
vidual, aspect  in  a  scheme  of  public  education.  Thus  inter- 
preted, "social  efficiency"  seems  to  include  what  society 
has  in  mind  when  it  taxes  its  members  for  the  support  of 
public  education. 

The  aim  of  education  should  be  adjusted  to  social  needs 
and  should  change  its  content  with  the  change  in  these  needs. 
Therefore  a  clear  understanding  of  "social  efficiency" 
depends  upon  an  understanding  of  the  needs  of  society. 
Society  needs : 

1.  That  its  individual  members  interpret  their  environ- 
ment adequately. 

2.  That  each  member  be  skilled  in  one  or  more  of  the 
applied  sciences  —  be  skilled  in  some  contributing  vocation. 


THE  AIMS  OF   PUBLIC-SCHOOL  TEACHING  33 

3.  That  each  member  have  some  contacts  with  the  great 
basic  occupations  in  order  to  have  the  proper  sympathy  with 
those  so  engaged. 

4.  That  each  member  have  ideals  and  prejudices  suffi- 
cient to  safeguard  the  fundamental  virtues  upon  which  the 
social  structure  stands. 

5.  That  each  member  enter  sufficiently  into  his  physical, 
scientific,  literary,  aesthetic,  institutional,  and  religious 
inheritance  to  live  completely  in  the  fullest  sense. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  GROWTH  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 

The  Acid  Test  of  Suhject-M alter.  —  One  proceeds  but  a 
little  way  in  an  endeavor  to  provide  suitable  materials  for  a 
course  of  study  before  he  is  confronted  with  the  fundamental 
questions  :  Is  this  subject-matter  worth  while  ?  Will  it  make 
a  strong  appeal  to  those  for  whom  it  is  intended  ? 

The  Twofold  Aspect  of  Worth-Whileness.  —  The  function 
of  subject-matter  may  be  considered  both  subjectively  and 
objectively.  When  such  controls  as  knowledge,  habits, 
ideals,  prejudices,  tastes,  and  attitudes  are  uppermost  in 
the  mind  of  the  teacher,  the  subjective  aspect  of  subject- 
matter  is  emphasized.  When  social  needs  are  under  con- 
sideration the  objective  aspect  of  subject-matter  is 
stressed. 

The  worth-whileness  of  subject-matter  in  the  last  analysis 
must  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  social  needs.  There 
is  a  surplus  of  subject-matter  which  will  appeal  strongly  to 
the  pupil,  and  which  will  estabUsh  the  desired  controls. 
The  problem  involved  is  one  of  selecting  from  this  surplus 
of  materials  those  of  marked  social  significance,  and  of 
organizing  them  into  a  system  which  will  make  a  progressive 
appeal  to  the  pupil  and  which  will  arouse  in  him  a  desire 
for  further  investigation. 

Dynamic  Character  of  Suhject-M  alter  Objectively  Con- 
sidered. —  The   problem   of   evaluating   subject-matter   is 

34 


THE   GROWTH   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  35 

ever  a  new  one.  Because  of  the  rapid  changes  taking  place 
in  the  social  structure  there  is  a  constant  demand  for  new 
adjustments.  It  therefore  behooves  teachers  who  feel  a 
responsibility  for  the  initial  adjustments  of  their  pupils  to 
take  frequent  inventories  of  subject-matter  which  in  no  low 
degree  determines  these  adjustments. 

Change  in  subject-matter  and  the  effect  of  such  change 
upon  classroom  instruction  are  apparent  on  every  hand. 
The  older  works  on  physics  give  a  full  discussion  of  the  steam 
engine,  but  fail  to  discuss  the  dynamo,  motor,  and  gasoline 
engine.  Industrial  evolution  has  made  a  place  for  the 
dynamo,  motor,  and  the  gasoline  engine,  and  consequently 
writers  of  recent  books  in  this  field  have  included  them. 

When  exploration  and  discovery  are  the  major  occupa- 
tions of  a  nation  its  geographers  are  concerned  mainly  with 
place  geography.  Under  these  conditions  the  direction  and 
extent  of  routes,  the  location  and  size  of  areas,  and  the 
location  of  boundaries  constitute  no  little  part  of  geo- 
graphical material. 

After  a  nation  has  sown  its  "wild  oats,"  so  to  speak,  its 
interest  shifts  to  causes  of  natural  phenomena,  of  political 
and  industrial  conditions,  and  to  the  availability  of  its 
natural  resources  and  products.  Fertility  of  the  soil, 
variety  and  extent  of  crops,  mineral  and  timber  resources, 
ways  and  means  of  transforming  raw  materials  into  finished 
products  and  of  transporting  such  products,  become  facts 
of  much  value  to  the  children  who  expect  to  participate  in 
such  a  life. 

Origin  of  Subject-Matter 

Any  serious  attempt  to  select  subject-matter  for  the 
schools  of  any  generation  must  take  into  account  the  needs 


36  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

which  occasion  such  subject-matter.  To  the  extent  that 
the  needs  of  any  generation  which  give  rise  to  subject- 
matter  are  identical  with  present  needs,  to  that  extent 
will  the  materials  of  a  former  generation  be  adequate  for 
the  present  generation. 

Desire  to  Know,  a  Fundamental  Need.  — ■  Pedagogical 
literature  discloses  two  distinct  theories  as  to  the  classes 
of  needs  which  have  determined  the  organic  development 
of  subject-matter.  One  of  these  theories  is  based  upon  the 
notion  that  man  is  by  nature  imaginative,  speculative, 
groping,  systematic,  and  logical.  A  logical  corollary  to 
this  theory  is  that  man  naturally  organizes  fragmentary 
knowledge  into  systems  regardless  of  any  conscious  utili- 
tarian need  of  such  a  system. 

In  this  connection  Professor  Judd  says:  "The  behavior 
[of  primitive  man]  was  dominated  by  fantastic  imagina- 
tion. Primitive  society  put  its  members  through  the  most 
onerous  tasks  to  satisfy  needs  which  were  entirely  of  the 
imagination's  making.  To  understand  primitive  customs 
one  has  to  study  primitive  myths."  ^ 

According  to  this  theory,  beliefs,  creeds,  the  arts,  and 
the  sciences  developed  from  vague  imaginative  beginnings 
into  sane  and  logical  productions  because  of  the  "clash  of 
the  wits"  of  the  individuals  of  the  group  and  of  the  groups 
themselves.  These  intellectual  clashes  usually  resulted  in 
a  partial  or  complete  acceptance  of  the  theory  which  made 
the  greatest  intellectual  appeal.  "Each  tribe  was  content 
to  believe  its  own  myths,"  says  Professor  Judd,  "until  it 
began  to  come  into  intimate  relation  with  other  tribes. 
Then  the  clash  of  social  opinion  made  men  skeptical.  There 
is  nothing  more  jarring  to  one's  primitive  scientific  theories 
^  Psychology  oj  Uigh-School  Subjects,  Judd.     Chap.  XIV. 


THE    GROWTH   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  37 

than  to  find  that  one  cannot  persuade  his  neighbor.  So  it 
was  with  the  Greek  thinkers.  At  first  each  developed  his 
own  views  without  restraint,  but  soon  he  met  some  one  who 
had  evolved  other  views.  Now  came  the  clash  of  wits 
which  characterizes  that  period  of  Greek  skepticism  that 
introduced  the  first  great  constructive  period  of  western 
thought.  During  the  period  of  skepticism  the  Greeks 
learned  that  thought,  to  be  productive,  must  be  critical  as 
well  as  imaginative. 

"Thus,  through  social  clashes  followed  by  re\'ision, 
internal  or  theoretical  consistency  was  established.  This 
criterion  of  internal  consistency  is  the  one  which  is  used 
even  to-day  in  testing  much  of  our  scientific  thinking.  The 
man  of  science  is  wilKng  to  go  through  a  long  and  laborious 
comparison  of  different  ideas  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
their  internal  consistency.  //  is  only  in  the  latest  and  most 
elaborate  stages  of  science  and  industry  that  internal  consistency 
and  practical  applicability  are  both  recognized  as  equally 
valid  methods  of  testing  thinking.'" 

Solution  of  Practical  Problems  a  Fundamental  Need.  — 
The  other  theory  of  the  origin  of  subject-matter  is  based 
upon  the  thesis  that  man  creates  it  to  solve  his  practical 
problems.  In  defense  of  this  theory  Professor  Charters 
says:  "New  subject-matter  is  formed  when  difiiculties 
which  cannot  be  handled  by  subject-matter  already 
formed  are  met.  Or  in  other  words  it  is  created  in 
response  to  some  need.  For  instance,  it  is  commonly  held 
that  botany  had  its  early  beginning  in  sickness  and  disease, 
for  whose  cure  the  tribal  women  collected  herbs  and  studied 
them.  The  science  of  chemistry  sprang  from  alchemy 
through  the  desire  of  man  to  find  a  rapid  means  of  changing 
the  baser  metals  into  gold.     When  the  Nile  swept  away 


38  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

the  line  fences  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  each  year, 
geometry  was  invented  to  determine  the  boundaries  of  the 
fenceless  farms.  Astronomy,  in  the  form  of  astrology, 
probably  began  in  an  effort  to  foretell  disasters  and  good 
fortune."! 

These  two  very  different  theories  of  the  origin  of  materials 
which  have  been  advanced  by  two  recent  and  influential 
writers  of  textbooks  on  educational  theory,  seem  to  bhght 
any  hope  one  may  have  of  a  science  of  education.  If 
teachers  cannot  agree  upon  the  agencies  which  create 
subject-matter,  is  it  reasonable  to  believe  they  will  agree 
upon  the  subject-matter  to  be  used  in  the  schools  and  the 
method  to  be  employed  in  its  presentation  ? 

A  Compromise  View  of  the  Origin  of  Subject-Matter.  — ■ 
Before  throwing  our  hands  up  in  despair  let  us  extract  some 
wholesome  philosophy  from  Saxe's  little  poem,  "The  BUnd 
Men  and  the  Elephant." 

THE   BLIND   MEN  AND   THE   ELEPHANT 

It  was  six  men  of  Indostan 

To  learning  much  inclined, 
Who  went  to  see  the  Elephant 

(Though  all  of  them  were  blind), 
That  each  by  observation 

Might  satisfy  his  mind. 

The  First  approached  the  Elephant, 

And,  happening  to  fall 
Against  his  broad  and  sturdy  side. 

At  once  began  to  bawl : 
"God  bless  me  !  but  the  Elephant 

Is  very  like  a  wall !" 

>  Methods  of  Teaching,  Charters.     Chap.  II. 


THE    GROWTH   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  39 

The  Second,  feeling  of  the  tusk, 

Cried:  "Ho  !  what  have  we  here 
So  very  round  and  smooth  and  sharp? 

To  me  'tis  mighty  clear 
This  wonder  of  an  Elephant 

Is  very  like  a  spear !" 

The  Third  approached  the  animal, 

And,  happening  to  take 
The  squirming  trunk  within  his  hand, 

Thus  boldly  up  and  spake  : 
"I  see,"  quoth  he,  "the  Elephant 

Is  very  Hke  a  snake !" 


And  so  these  men  of  Indostan 

Disputed  loud  and  long, 
Each  in  his  own  opinion 

Exceeding  stifif  and  strong, 
Though  each  was  partly  in  the  right, 

And  all  were  in  the  wrong ! 

—  John  G.  Saxe. 

If  educational  theorists  seem  to  differ  it  is  probable 
that  they  have  approached  the  educational  elephant  from 
slightly  different  angles.  Broad  experience  and  a  sympa- 
thetic attitude  is  needed  to  correlate  theories  which  at 
first  seem  strangely  contradictory. 

The  instinctive  desire  to  win,  the  angle  of  perspective 
from  which  men  view  their  environment,  the  ebb  and  flow 
of  emotions,  a  difference  in  aims  and  basic  experiences,  and 
a  wholesome  individuahsm  lead  educational  writers  to  over- 
stress  one  aspect  of  education  and  to  slight  or  wholly  ignore 
other  aspects  equally  significant. 

While  it  seems  reasonably  certain  that  Greek  philosophy 
sprang  from  the  "fantastic  imagination"  of  the  elect  of 
the  Greek  people  and  was  "tempered  into  theoretical  con- 


40  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

sistency"  through  the  "clash  of  wits"  and  afterward  was 
considered  valid  by  virtue  of  its  application,  it  does  not 
follow  that  all  subject-matter  had  its  rise  in  this  way. 
The  probability  is  that  most  of  the  materials  taught  in  the 
early  geographies  were  accumulated  government  reports 
from  various  seamen,  explorers,  and  discoverers,  inter- 
spersed with  theory  for  the  purpose  of  securing  unity.  It 
is  very  probable  that  those  who  needed  this  information 
were  the  ones  who  sought  it,  just  as  commercial  knowledge 
was  sought  in  the  private  commercial  schools  of  this  coun- 
try a  generation  ago  and  still  is  to  some  extent. 

Most  of  the  knowledge  which  constitutes  modern  physi- 
ology, hygiene,  and  sanitation  was  acquired  by  the  medical 
profession  in  its  effort  to  solve  the  perplexing  problems 
which  it  faced  daily.  It  was  not  the  "fantastic  imagina- 
tion" which  was  responsible  for  the  isolation,  controlled 
culture,  and  the  toxine  of  the  bacilli  which  are  now  well 
understood.  The  fact  is  it  was  a  desire  to  find  some 
practical  way  of  alleviating  human  ills  which  drove  men  to 
search  out  and  control  these  smallest  individuals  of  the 
organic  world. 

The  science  of  agriculture  could  never  have  been  de- 
veloped on  the  frontier  nor  on  the  streets  of  a  great  city. 
It  sprang  up  in  a  fragmentary  way  in  the  older  and  more 
thickly  populated  agricultural  communities.  So  long  as  a 
country  is  new  and  vast  tracts  of  land  are  to  be  had  for 
the  asking,  the  schools  show  little  concern  in  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  soils  or  a  balanced  ration  for  animals. 

When,  however,  the  frontier  has  vanished  and  farms  have 
been  abandoned  because  of  low  fertility ;  when  consumption 
increases  more  rapidly  than  production,  men  seriously 
concern  themselves  with  the  problems  of  production.     The 


THE   GROWTH   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  41 

wiser  persons  of  the  social  group  begin  to  lie  awake  nights 
meditating  over  ways  of  improvement.  Experiments  are 
conducted  in  feeding,  in  planting,  in  improving  soil  fer- 
tility and,  in  fact,  in  every  phase  of  farm  life  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  farm  conditions.  When  the  results  of 
these  investigations  are  compiled  and  edited,  subject-matter 
in  agriculture  is  at  hand. 

As  implied  above,  the  subject-matter  of  the  commercial 
branches  had  its  inception  in  the  private  schools.  No 
stronger  evidence  can  be  had  of  the  social  stress  back  of  sub- 
ject-matter than  its  association  with  private  schools.  These 
institutions  were  in  the  school  business  for  profit.  Conse- 
quently it  was  presented  only  when  there  was  a  strong 
demand  for  it.  After  the  demand  for  new  subject-matter 
becomes  great,  the  pubHc  schools  usually  sense  it  and 
finally  incorporate  it  in  the  curriculum. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  evident  that  much  of 
our  material  is  the  result  of  man's  instinctive  desire  to 
know  more,  and  to  organize  fragmentary  knowledge  for 
the  purpose  of  reveaHng  to  others  what  he  beheves.  For 
example,  geology,  astronomy,  botany,  zoology  as  pure 
sciences  were  created  because  man  became  curious  about 
his  environment.  By  means  of  comparison  he  began  to 
discern  likenesses  and  differences.  Principles  were  dis- 
covered and  a  new  organization  founded  upon  these  prin- 
ciples was  created. 

It  is  instinctive  to  want  to  know  whai;  one's  associates 
do  not  know,  and  to  want  to  tell  them  about  the  new 
possession.  Those  who  have  these  instincts  to  a  marked 
degree  will  travel  to  the  farthermost  parts  of  the  earth  to 
seek  knowledge  and  will  travel  no  less  far  to  reveal  it  to 
their    fellow    men.     They    will    put    forth    extraordinary 


42  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

energy  in  following  a  new  line  of  thought  to  its  satisfactory 
conclusion.  These  instincts,  coupled  with  ability,  are 
responsible  for  much  of  the  thought  that  has  concerned 
mankind.  These  instincts  are  prominent  in  teachers  of 
marked  success. 

This  twofold  view  of  the  origin  of  subject-matter  gives 
an  educational  perspective  which  is  interesting  to  ad- 
ministrator and  teacher  alike.  The  child's  native  and 
social  needs  demand  material  which  has  been  sifted  by 
both  of  these  processes.  On  the  one  hand,  subject- 
matter  should  stimulate  the  imagination,  arouse  interest 
in  principles,  and  lead  one  to  enjoy  analytic  and  synthetic 
processes.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  touch  the  motor 
springs  to  action  and  result  finally  in  practical  knowledge, 
ideals,  and  worthy  habits. 

This  twofold  aspect  of  the  origin  of  su|^ject-matter 
means  that  materials  selected  for  the  schools  must  have 
both  a  social  and  a  pedagogical  sanction.  It  means  that 
formal  material  must  be  considered,  first,  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  social  service  it  will  render;  and  secondly, 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  appeal  it  will  make  to  the  con- 
structive imagination  of  the  child.  It  means  that  he  who 
is  responsible  for  the  course  of  study  will  need  to  stand 
for  fundamental  psychic  principles,  a  good  organization, 
a  close  sequence  of  topics,  and  a  unifying  purpose.  Further- 
more it  means  that  he  will  need  to  check  materials  in  terms 
of  social  needs.  He  will  need  to  clean  house  constantly 
in  order  to  remove  materials  long  since  worthy  of  the  edu- 
cational scrap  pile  and  to  substitute  much-needed  materials 
for  them. 

The  constant  need  of  a  readjustment  of  subject-matter 
and  method,  and  the  frequent  reticence  of  teachers  towards 


THE   GROWTH  OF  SUBJECT-MAT  PER  43 

this  readjustment,  arouse  an  interest  in  the  negative  forces 
which  are  responsible  in  no  small  measure  for  the  slow  evolu- 
tion of  subject-matter. 

Agencies  Which  Operate  to  Conserve  Subject- 
Matter 

It  is  quite  as  interesting  to  observe  the  agencies  which 
operate  to  retain  subject-matter  in  the  course  of  study 
long  after  the  need  for  it  has  passed  away,  as  it  is  to  ob- 
serve those  agencies  which  operate  to  keep  subject-matter 
in  harmony  with  the  shifting  needs  of  the  group  for  which 
it  is  intended. 

Imitation  a  Cause  of  Conservation  of  Subject-Matter.  — 
The  presence  of  imitation  in  human  nature  is  the  most 
persistent  of  the  conservative  agencies.  Teachers  are  in- 
clined to  teach  the  texts  they  were  taught  and  in  much  the 
same  manner.  Identical  forms,  similar  procedure,  and  like 
interpretations  and  applications  are  passed  along  from 
teacher  to  teacher  with  wonderful  precision  and  fidelity. 

As  one  finds  faithful  reproductions  of  northern  plants 
isolated  on  mountain  tops  in  semitropical  regions,  so  he 
finds  faithful  reproductions  of  a  once  needed  subject- 
matter  and  method  left  isolated  in  the  curriculum  through 
failure  of  those  who  are  responsible  for  it  to  keep  in  touch 
with  the  social  and  pedagogical  changes  which  have  taken 
place. 

More  than  seventy  years  after  Horace  Mann  had  preached 
against  the  folly  of  the  alphabet  method  of  teaching  reading, 
a  committee  in  charge  of  the  educational  survey  in  Ohio 
found  a  few  teachers  still  applying  faithfully  the  alphabet 
method  of  their  fathers. 


44  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

Recession  from  Content  to  Form  a  Cause  of  Retention.  — 
The  natural  tendency  to  recede  mentally  from  the  content 
to  the  form  through  which  the  content  finds  expression 
is  another  conservative  agency  in  education.  Students  of 
language  often  allow  themselves  to  become  disciples  of 
some  particular  technique,  or  phraseology.  Students  of 
arithmetic,  geography,  and  history  sometimes  become  wor- 
shipers of  the  method  employed  and  lose  sight  of  the  end 
to  be  attained.  This  natural  tendency  to  substitute  the 
form  for  the  thing  which  it  reveals  is  not  infrequently  a 
millstone  around  the  throat  of  progress. 

Group  Teaching  a  Cause  of  Conservation  of  Suhject-Matter. 
—  Perhaps  no  single  agency  has  been  quite  so  effective  in 
delaying  the  natural  evolutionary  progress  of  subject- 
matter  as  that  of  group  teaching.  Group  teaching,  while 
meritorious  in  many  ways  and  for  practical  reasons  quite 
necessary,  tends  strongly  to  stamp  approval  upon  fact 
getting  instead  of  upon  getting  the  relative  value  of  the  fact 
obtained.  It  requires  Httle  misapprehension  to  go  from 
"fact  getting"  to  word  juggling,  which  easily  becomes  a 
fetish.  Effective  methods  of  teaching  will  prevent  these 
serious  consequences. 

A  Sense  of  Relative  Values  is  Necessary  to  Progress.  — ■ 
One's  sense  of  relative  values  determines  in  a  large  measure 
the  modification  he  effects  in  the  curriculum.  One  who 
sanctions  a  sailor's  geography ;  a  history  of  war  and  con- 
quest instead  of  a  history  of  the  activities  of  peace ;  a 
literature  deaHng  with  erotic,  morbid,  and  fantastic  out- 
bursts of  character  instead  of  the  well-balanced,  con- 
sistent, and  self-sacrificing  endeavor  of  noble  men  and 
women ;  a  physiology  of  structure  instead  of  a  physiology 
which  stresses  those  processes  upon  which  happiness  and 


THE   GROWTH  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  45 

efficiency  depend ;  an  arithmetic  emphasizing  an  appHca- 
tion  of  principles  instead  of  principles  for  application,  — 
fails  to  sense  the  relation  of  the  school  to  individual  de- 
velopment and  social  service. 

Persons  responsible  for  public-school  curricula  can  ill 
afford  to  be  indifferent  to  social  needs.  They  should  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  the  materials  of  the  curriculum  are  in- 
tended as  means  to  an  end  and  not  as  an  end  in  themselves. 
The  first  test  to  which  subject-matter  should  be  submitted 
is  that  of  worth-whileness  in  the  sense  of  meeting  social 
needs.  When  it  has  stood  this  test,  it  is  then  time  to  con- 
sider it  from  the  standpoint  of  the  appeal  it  will  make  to 
the  child. 

The  Child  Factor  in  the  Evolution  of  Suhject-M alter.  — 
With  an  improved  knowledge  of  general  psychology,  with 
improved  methods  of  determining  children's  reactions  to 
subject-matter,  with  improved  methods  of  determining 
the  progress  of  children  and  the  factors  involved  in  that 
progress,  there  has  come  a  deepened  sense  of  the  need  of  a 
better  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  subject-matter  to  the 
child's  interest. 

This  deepened  sense  of  the  finer  adjustment  of  subject- 
matter  to  the  interests  of  children  has  already  borne  fruit 
a  hundredfold,  and  consequently  has  been  no  little  factor 
in  determining  change  in  subject-matter. 

Adaptation  of  Subject-Matter  to  the  Child's 
Interests 

No  better  examples  of  the  adaptation  of  subject-matter  to 
the  instinctive  tendencies  of  the  child  can  be  cited  than  those 
of  reading  and  arithmetic.     Excepting  the  so-called  method 


46  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

readers,  which  in  reality  are  methodized  and  not  psychologized 
materials,  most  of  our  newer  readers  are  fine  examples  of 
the  adjustment  which  has  taken  place  under  the  inspiration 
of  this  point  of  view. 

Present  Status  of  Reading.  —  The  primer  and  the  first 
and  second  readers  of  the  newer  sets  of  readers  are  ex- 
amples of  the  recognition  which  has  been  given  to  the  child's 
predominating  interests.  The  pupil  fresh  from  the  kinder- 
garten or  the  home  has  had  a  touch  of  make-believe  and 
fancy.  His  imagination  knows  no  bounds.  Like  the 
fabled  frost  it  travels  far  and  near  in  boundless  space. 
The  folklore  and  fairy  tales  of  these  first  books  are  ad- 
mirably suited  to  nurture  this  most  fundamental  psychic 
process  and  to  utilize  it  in  mastering  the  technique  and  in 
forming  the  habits  necessary  for  further  progress. 

By  the  time  the  third  and  fourth  grades  are  reached  the 
imagination  is  no  less  marked,  but  it  has  reached  another 
phase  of  development.  In  the  preceding  years  the  plausi- 
bihty  of  the  "tale"  was  never  questioned.  In  fact  the 
question  of  probabiHty  never  arose.  In  these  later  grades 
reason  and  experience  begin  to  assert  themselves.  Tricks 
are  still  enjoyed  but  they  must  approximate  the  truth. 
Practical  jokes  are  immensely  enjoyed  in  these  grades, 
especially  jokes  played  upon  animrls  or  by  animals.  This 
period  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  animal  stories.  The  Story 
of  a  Donkey,  The  Story  oj  a  Toad,  most  of  the  Mother  West- 
wind  Stories,  Merry  Animal  Tales,  and  some  of  Thomp- 
son Seton's  and  Warner's  stories  are  admirably  suited  to 
third  and  fourth-grade  children.  The  animal  hero  is  of 
rare  interest  to  these  children. 

The  psychic  outlook,  so  far  as  reading  is  concerned,  is 
somewhat  changed  by  the  time  the  intermediate  grades  are 


THE   GROWTH  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  47 

reached.  Heroes  still  hold  a  prominent  place  in  the  child's 
interest.  The  animal  hero,  however,  yields  in  interest  to 
the  human  hero.  Greek  myths  and  similar  stories  receive 
an  astonishingly  hearty  response.  Robin  Hood  is  a  fine 
example  of  the  sort  of  hero  that  is  enjoyed  by  children  of 
this  age. 

Unfortunately  the  terminology  of  these  stories  ofifers  a 
serious  handicap  to  their  usefulness.  Literature  of  this 
kind  is  full  of  difficult  words  which  are  seldom  used  in  any 
other  connection.  Perhaps  a  wise  revision  of  these  stories 
for  the  purpose  of  eHminating  unusual  words  is  advisable. 
At  any  rate  this  particular  difficulty  should  be  partially 
or  wholly  removed,  either  by  revision  or  by  a  better  se- 
lection. The  materials  for  the  grammar  grades  have  kept 
pace  with  the  psychic  development  of  the  child.  Heroes 
are  still  in  demand.  Neither  the  animal  hero  nor  the 
human  hero  who  dominates  and  controls  for  personal  and 
selfish  reasons  will  do.  The  heroes  of  Tennyson's  Idylls 
oj  the  King  meet  a  hearty  response.  Moreover,  the  young 
people  of  the  grammar  grades  are  already  contemplating 
life's  problems.  They  are  interested  in  most  phases  of 
literature  which  portray  human  endeavor  in  pursuit  of 
lofty  ideals. 

Most  of  our  newei-  readers  have  been  adapted  either  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  to  these  psychic  outcrops  of  the 
children  of  the  elementary  school,  who  are  on  their  forward 
march  toward  racial  ideals  and  personal  and  social  re- 
sponsibility. 

Present  Status  of  Arithmetic.  —  Those  who  are  responsible 
for  the  newer  arithmetics,  especially  the  books  for  primary 
children,  have  shown  much  appreciation  of  the  psychic 
needs  of  children  relative  to  the  mastery  of  numbers.     The 


48  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHINCx 

materials  have  been  made  much  more  concrete  and  at- 
tractive. The  sequence  of  materials  to  problems  is  closer 
and  the  employment  of  materials  within  the  experiences 
of  the  children  is  much  more  common,  all  of  which  mark 
a  decided  advance  in  formal  number  work. 

Present  Status  of  Other  Subjects.  —  Other  subjects  re- 
veal a  marked  adjustment  of  material  to  meet  the  psychic 
needs  of  children.  The  old  deductive  grammar  is  all 
but  gone,  physiology  has  been  reorganized  in  the  in- 
terests of  children,  historical  materials  have  been  vitalized 
through  the  use  of  letters  and  stories  of  the  children  of 
earher  times.  Even  spelling  and  writing  are  recognized 
as  human  instruments  for  the  conveyance  of  thought  in- 
stead of  rare  accomphshments  through  which  one  can 
achieve  renown. 

The  process  of  reconstruction  based  upon  the  social  and 
psychic  needs  of  children  has  been  steady  and  commendable. 
It  must  ever  go  forward.  Social  needs  will  continue  to 
change  and  a  better  insight  into  the  laws  of  mind  will 
necessitate  constant  adjustment  of  subject-matter.  A 
halt  means  a  stay  of  progress,  while  a  continuous  adjust- 
ment of  materials  in  response  to  new  conditions  is  progress 
itself. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ORGANIZATION   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER 

Living  Organisms.  — ■  An  examination  of  simple  plants 
and  animals  leads  one  to  the  conviction  that  the  distinct 
parts  of  each  are  in  harmony  with  the  welfare  of  the  whole. 
When  parts  in  a  complex  arrangement  are  so  conditioned 
that  they  work  in  accord  with  the  purpose  of  the  greater 
whole,  the  whole  is  an  organism  and  its  structure  is  organic. 
All  life  operates  and  reveals  itself  through  organisms.  From 
the  simple  structure  of  the  amoeba  to  the  highly  complex 
and  beautifully  adapted  organism  of  man,  we  find  pro- 
cesses conditioned  and  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
life  that  is  revealed. 

In  the  light  of  biological  science  it  is  sufficient  to  suggest 
that  the  parts  of  hving  organisms  have  been  developed  and 
assembled  through  the  constructive  processes  of  hereditary 
variation  and  selection.  The  law  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest  determines  the  varying  structures  of  living  organisms. 

Inanimate  Organisms.  —  Not  only  does  life  manifest 
itself  directly  through  the  organism  which  nurtures  and 
reveals  it,  but  it  reaches  out  through  this  organism  to  its 
immediate  environment  which  it  adapts  and  arranges  for 
the  purpose  of  extending  its  freedom.  Thus  man  has  laid 
hold  of  his  environment  and  organized  it.  He  has  cut  trees 
with  which  to  construct  houses,  built  boats  and  bridges 
with  which  to  cross  streams,  made  tools  with  which  to 

49 


50  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

cultivate  the  soil,  invented  symbols  with  which  to  convey 
thought,  and  arranged  experiences  with  which  to  uplift  his 
fellow  men. 

Back  of  this  external  arrangement  of  the  things  of  his 
environment  are  unmistakable  signs  of  purpose.  He  ar- 
ranges, rearranges ;  builds,  destroys ;  combines  and 
recombines  in  accord  with  his  shifting  ideals  and  purposes. 
He  arranges  the  stones,  mortar,  and  timber  of  his  environ- 
ment in  a  way  to  realize  a  certain  purpose  and  he  calls  the 
arrangement  a  house.  He  arranges  materials  in  a  way  to 
realize  another  purpose  and  he  proclaims  the  arrangement 
a  barn ;  and  still  a  different  arrangement  to  fulfill  another 
purpose,  and  he  has  a  bridge.  In  each  case  the  arrangement 
is  a  structure  because  it  reveals  purpose.  It  is  an  organism 
because  the  parts  have  a  distinct  function  as  well  as  a  general 
and  cooperative  function  in  the  realization  of  the  purpose 
of  him  who  assembled  them.  The  ideas  —  houseness, 
barnness,  and  bridgeness — ^were  the  forces  which  assembled 
and  unified  the  parts  of  which  the  prescribed  and  conven- 
tional forms  are  composed. 

Inanimate  organisms  of  human  origin  spring  from  the 
brain  of  man  and  vary  with  his  states  of  mind.  His  aims 
and  purposes  are  the  initial  forces  which  assemble  materials 
from  the  remote  parts  of  the  earth  and  arrange  them  into 
organic  structures.  New  structures  have  sprung  up  in 
this  way  to  meet  his  needs. 

Not  only  are  man's  aims  and  purposes  realized  through 
the  assembling  of  concrete  materials,  but  they  find  fruition 
through  an  understanding  of  organisms  which  reveal  the  ex- 
periences and  purposes  of  others.  The  Monroe  Doctrine, 
the  Missouri  Compromise,  the  Free  Wool  Schedule,  Riley's 
Old  Swimmin'  Hole,  Stevenson's  Treasure  Island,  Holmes's 


ORGANIZATION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  51 

Old  Ironsides,  Wells's  Geometry,  Sanford  and  Brown's 
Grammar,  and  Bagley's  Educative  Process  are  all  organ- 
isms which  have  been  created  to  realize  certain  aims 
of  the  persons  who  created  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  serve  to  stimulate  and  develop  those  who  will  delve 
into  them. 


School  Concerned  with  Twofold  Aspect  of  Structure 

The  school  must  concern  itself  with  a  twofold  aspect  of 
structure.  In  so  far  as  pupils  are  encouraged  and  directed 
to  develop  and  reveal  original  purpose  they  will  need  to  be 
famihar  with  the  processes  of  collecting  and  assembling 
materials  to  this  end.  This  is  the  creative  side  of  school 
direction  and  by  no  means  the  least  valuable,  though  usu- 
ally it  is  the  least  satisfactory  of  school  accomplishments. 

Develop  Creative  Ability.  —  Practically  all  subjects  lend 
themselves  to  the  development  of  creative  ability.  Success 
or  failure  depends  upon  the  insight  and  power  of  the  teacher 
to  stimulate  the  latent  creative  tendencies  of  her  pupils  and 
to  furnish  them  with  appropriate  skills  and  materials  with 
which  to  make  creation  possible.  Original  design  in  the 
manual  arts  ;  letter  writing,  short  stories,  descriptions,  and 
dramatizations  of  various  forms  in  English ;  original  data, 
comparative  maps,  graphs  and  plots  in  the  social  sciences ; 
and  concrete  problems  of  a  personal  nature  in  mathematics 
— •  all  afford  opportunity  for  originality  in  both  the  creation 
and  expression  of  ideas. 

Training  in  creative  thinking  includes  the  development  of 
an  awareness  by  the  pupil  of  the  interrelation  of  purpose 
and  structure.  He  must  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
ideas  are  revealed  only  through  structure,  and   that  the 


52  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

success  of  an  attempted  revelation  depends  upon  both  the 
quality  of  the  idea  to  be  revealed  and  the  suitability  of  the 
structure  created  to  reveal  it. 

A  few  illustrations  will  serve  to  emphasize  this  viewpoint. 
Certain  persons  purposed  to  employ  electric  energy  in  the 
solution  of  social  problems,  consequently  they  constructed 
the  electric  doorbell,  •  the  telephone,  and  the  electric  fan. 
Another  purposed  to  relieve  mankind  of  the  annoyance  of 
sound,  consequently  he  invented  the  muffler.  Longfellow 
wanted  to  impress  the  world  with  his  notion  of  the  im- 
pelling force  of  genius,  and  he  created  Excelsior.  Jordan 
desired  to  reveal  the  notion  he  had  of  the  impelling  force 
of  instinct  in  the  salmon,  and  he  constructed  the  Life  of 
the  Salmon.  Holmes  was  impelled  to  reveal  the  idea  of 
national  ingratitude  in  a  specific  instance,  and  he  con- 
structed the  poem  Old  Ironsides.  Hawthorne  desired  to 
reveal  his  notion  of  the  influence  of  an  absorbing  ideal  upon 
an  individual,  and  he  wrote  the  story  of  The  Great  Stone 
Face. 

Develop  Interpretative  Abilities.  —  It  is  inconceivable  that 
ideas  and  purposes  are  consciously  revealed  by  any  means 
other  than  that  of  structure.  They  may  be  revealed  by  a 
simple  organism.  Usually,  however,  they  are  revealed  by 
a  series  of  processes  resulting  in  a  complex  organism  or 
highly  organized  body.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher 
to  lead  the  child  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  interrela- 
tion of  purpose  and  structure  that  he  may  be  able  to  express 
his  own  ideas  effectively  and  be  qualified  to  interpret 
adequately  the  ideas  of  others. 

Progress  depends  upon  ability  both  to  create  and  to 
interpret  structures.  Since  mankind  seriously  began  to 
accumulate  the  organic  experiences  of  the  race  for  its  own 


ORGANIZATION   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  53 

advancement,  interpretation  of  structures  has  been  taken 
more  and  more  seriously.  The  child  is  sent  to  school  to 
learn  the  basic  experiences  of  the  race  in  order  that  he  may 
profit  thereby  and  thus  be  enabled  to  begin  where  his 
predecessors  leave  off. 

Interrelation  of  Structure  and  Function 

School  curricula  in  the  main  are  composed  of  highly 
organized  and  classified  racial  experiences.  One  main 
function  of  the  school  is  to  give  the  pupil  the  key  to  these 
racial  treasures,  that  he  may  draw  upon  them  in  time  of 
need.  This  involves  a  knowledge  and  control  of  the  so- 
called  fundamentals,  such  as  elementary  reading,  spelling, 
and  the  simple  processes  in  arithmetic.  It  also  means 
skill  in  determining  purpose  through  an  examination  of 
structure. 

Structure  Reveals  Function.  —  The  first  step  in  this  pro- 
cess may  be  acquired  through  calling  the  pupils'  attention  to 
the  fact  that  ordinarily  we  examine  structures  to  enable 
us  to  get  our  bearings  in  the  organic  world.  By  an  examina- 
tion and  comparison  of  the  structures  of  the  electric  door- 
bell, the  telephone,  and  the  electric  fan  one  early  learns  that 
they  are  intended  to  fulfill  entirely  different  functions.  The 
bell  and  gong  reveal  the  inventor's  specific  purpose  in  creat- 
ing the  electric  bell.  The  mouth  and  ear  pieces  with  the  wire 
connections  indicate  the  purpose  that  initiated  the  tele- 
phone, while  the  paddle-like  arms  of  the  electric  fan  are 
urmiistakable  signs  of  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  One 
examines  a  building  and  infers  that  the  builder  intended 
it  for  a  summer  cottage.  He  examines  another  and  is 
forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  builder  intended  it  for 


54  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

a  library.  He  examines  a  third  structure  and  is  convinced 
it  was  intended  for  a  school.  The  conclusion  in  each 
of  these  cases  results  from  an  examination  of  the  parts  of 
the  structure  in  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the 
whole.  The  various  parts  in  these  structures  are  an 
external  expression  of  organized  purpose.  They  must  have 
existed  in  idea  before  becoming  objective  reahties. 

The  growth  and  adoption  of  conventional  forms  of  com- 
munication have  enabled  civilized  peoples  to  objectify  ideas 
and  purposes  in  a  purely  symbolic  way,  through  the  medium 
of  language.  This  medium,  like  those  of  which  electric 
instruments  and  buildings  are  constructed,  is  flexible  and 
easily  adapted  to  one's  needs.  Words  and  sentences  ar- 
ranged in  one  way  force  one  interpretation,  while  another 
arrangement  impels  a  different  conclusion.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  structures  of  a  church  and  of  a  school  is  due 
to  the  character  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  involved. 
Likewise  the  difference  between  Excelsior  and  the  Life 
of  the  Salmon  is  due  to  the  character  and  arrangement  of 
their  parts. 

If  the  above  conclusion  is  sound,  it  is  evident  that  the 
only  way  one  has  of  laying  hold  of  the  ideas  and  purposes  of 
others  is  by  examining  the  character  and  relation  of  the  parts 
of  the  structures  created  by  them  to  reveal  their  purposes. 
In  the  last  consideration  it  means  a  painstaking  analysis 
and  synthesis  of  the  structures  created  by  them. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  it  is  the  sole  business  of  man 
to  search  continually  for  the  purposes  of  his  fellows.  Were 
one,  on  being  ushered  into  his  room  at  the  hotel  late  at  night, 
inclined  to  determine  all  the  purposes  of  the  designer  of 
his  room  before  retiring,  the  chances  are  he  would  have  little 
time  to  "lie  down  to  pleasant  dreams."     Likewise  should 


ORGANIZATION   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  55 

one  constantly  be  examining  the  structure  of  Mark  Twain's 
Innocents  Abroad  or  Irving's  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  he 
might  neglect  to  enjoy  the  ludicrous  situations  depicted  by 
these  two  splendid  Americans. 

While  it  is  not  intended  that  one  should  spend  all  of  his 
school  time  interpreting  human  purpose,  it  is  true,  none 
the  less,  that  one  large  aim  of  the  school  should  be  to  develop 
interpretative  abihties.  This  means  a  mastery  of  both 
principles  and  technique.  The  structures  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  examined  that  we  may  know  the  function  of  each 
part  in  the  maintenance  of  the  structure  and  thereby  be 
enabled  to  determine  the  use  of  the  parts  of  other  organisms. 

The  social  sciences  are  examined  that  we  may  get  the 
author's  interpretation  of  the  governments  and  economic 
practices  of  progressive  peoples.  The  masterpieces  of  the 
world's  greatest  writers  are  examined  that  we  may  learn 
of  the  great  messages  passed  on  to  us  and  may  acquire  the 
ability  to  understand  and  appreciate  similar  structures 
created  for  us. 

Purpose  Determines  Structure.  —  Since  purpose  is  revealed 
through  structure  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  structure  will 
be  no  more  complete  than  the  purpose  which  gives  it 
birth.  Variation  in  degrees  of  clearness  and  definiteness  of 
purpose  finds  its  counterpart  in  variation  in  the  quality 
of  materials  chosen  and  the  character  of  the  arrangement 
of  parts.  One  who  thinks  logically  will  of  necessity  organize 
logically  and  vice  versa.  One  not  only  should  be,  but  actu- 
ally is,  judged  by  the  structures  he  creates  or  accepts,  whether 
they  be  the  clothes  he  wears,  the  buildings  he  constructs, 
or  the  books  he  writes  or  reads.  Of  course  the  justness  of 
this  judgment  depends  upon  the  organizing  ability  of 
the  critic. 


56  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Of  necessity  the  school  will  need  to  deal  with  structures 
whose  parts  vary  greatly  in  the  character  and  quality  of 
their  arrangement.  To  the  extent  that  this  arrangement 
can  be  fully  appreciated  by  the  teacher  is  it  possible  for 
him  to  expose  its  purpose  to  the  child. 

Organization  and  Logical  Thinking.  —  A  definite  purpose 
supported  by  a  consistent  arrangement  of  thought  elements 
well  suited  to  reveal  that  purpose  is  logical  thinking.  A 
structure  which  is  beautifully  adapted  to  reveal  logical 
thinking  is  a  logical  structure.  As  Charters  has  pointed 
out,  a  logical  organization  consists  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  essential  parts  of  an  organism  in  the  order  of  their  degree 
of  relevancy  to  the  organizing  purpose.^  It  is  inconceivable 
that  one  should  teach  efficiently  without  possessing  the 
ability  to  arrange  the  specific  experiences  needed  into  a 
logical  whole  and  to  make  them  exphcit  first,  to  himself,  and 
second,  to  those  whom  he  teaches.  • 

Means  of  Determining  a  Unifying  Idea.  —  Since  organiza- 
tion implies  a  central  idea,  it  is  important  from  the  stand- 
point of  conservation  of  energy  that  this  ''unifying  idea." 
be  "sensed"  or  anticipated  as  easily  as  possible.  It  is 
usually,  though  not  always,  implied  in  the  "topic,"  the 
"heading,"  or  the  "subject."  If  it  cannot  be  discerned 
through  these  sources,  a  casual  but  somewhat  analytical 
examination  of  the  entire  structure  may  be  necessary  to 
discover  it.  Not  until  such  a  "unifying  idea "  is  determined 
is  it  possible  to  evaluate  the  parts  or  determine  the  "order  of 
their  degree  of  relevancy  to  the  unifying  idea."  If  the  parts 
cannot  be  unified  under  the  tentative  topic  selected,  one 
of  two  things  is  probable;   either  the  tentative  "unifying 

■  Methods  of  Teaching,  Charters. 


ORGANIZATION  OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  57 

idea"  is  not  the  one  intended  by  the  writer  or  the  organism 
is  illogically  and  poorly  arranged. 

Ability  to  arrange  the  parts  of  a  selection  so  they  will 
readily  reveal  its  central  idea  or  to  evaluate  an  ar- 
rangement of  parts  through  an  examination  of  the  order 
of  that  arrangement,  is  a  rare  quality  among  the  beginners 
in  the  teaching  profession.  Teachers  of  special  and  general 
methods  in  training  schools  for  teachers  should  not  estimate 
too  lightly  the  merit  of  this  sort  of  training. 

Teachers^  Organizations.  —  In  order  to  reveal  the  vari- 
ability in  the  capacity  of  teachers  in  service  to  organize 
and  to  use  organizations,  the  following  comparative  or- 
ganizations are  given:  The  ''Story  of  the  Quail"  ^  was 
given  to  a  mixed  group  of  elementary  teachers  of  a  good 
city  system  in  the  Middle  West.  The  papers  handed  in 
revealed  a  wide  variation  in  the  ability  of  these  teachers  to 
organize.  Only  a  very  small  per  cent  of  those  who  made 
the  trial  were  able  to  approximate  the  excellent  results 
obtained  by  the  strongest  of  their  number.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  outlines  of  the  great  majority  approximated  the 
rather  inferior  one  selected  at  random  from  those  handed 
in.  Two  type  organizations  selected  from  these  papers  are 
given  below  in  the  ascending  order  of  their  value. 

No.   I 
A  Story  of  the  Quail  ^ 

1 .  Mr.  Bob  sits  on  the  fence  and  gives  forth  hearty  calls. 

2.  Sharp-eyes  is  in  the  grass  picking  seeds. 

3.  Mr.  Bob's  experience  with  a  hawk. 

4.  How  Mr.  Bob  and  Sharp-eyes  find  each  other. 

5.  The  quails'  nest. 

'  Our  Common  Friends  and  Foes,  Turner.     American  Book  Co. 


58  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

6.  The  young  quails. 

7.  The  enemies  of  the  quail. 

8.  Man  the  greatest  enemy. 

9.  Struggle  of  the  quails  against  the  brutal  acts  of  man. 

10.  The  number  of  quails  left. 

11.  How  they  spent  the  winter. 

12.  In  the  spring  they  built  their  nest  near  the  place  where  they  were 

reared. 

No.    2 
A  Story  of  the  Quail 

I.   Its  haunts. 

1.  In  summer. 

A .  In  the  meadow. 

B.  In  the  fields. 

C.  By  the  brook. 

2.  In  winter. 

A .  Among  briers  and  weeds. 

B.  In  the  woods. 
II.   Its  calls. 

1.  Those  of  the  male. 

A.  Bobwhite. 

B.  Who-kee. 

2.  Those  of  the  female. 

Ka-loi-kee. 

III.  Its  food. 

1.  Animal. 

Cutworms,  grasshoppers,  caterpillars,  chinch  bugs,  potato 
bugs,  beetles,  etc. 

2.  Vegetable. 

Seeds  of  weeds. 

IV.  Its  offspring. 

1.  Where  reared. 

A.  Nest. 

B.  Eggs  (period  of  incubation). 

2.  Number. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  59 

3.  Habits. 

4.  Dangers  encountered. 
V.  Its  enemies. 

1.  Birds  of  prey. 

Hawks  and  owls. 

2.  Domestic  animals. 

Cats,  dogs. 

3.  Man. 

VI.    Its  value  to  man. 

1.  Reduces  number  01 

A.  Harmful  insects. 

B.  Harmful  seeds. 

2.  Gives  enjoyment. 

A.  Cheery  notes. 

B.  Beautiful  form. 

An  examination  of  these  organizations  reveals  two  very 
distinct  notions  of  the  intrinsic  function  of  the  story.  In 
order  to  get  at  the  underlying  cause  of  such  a  wide  variation 
in  organization  each  of  these  teachers  was  asked  to  state  as 
definitely  as  he  could  the  teacher^s  aim  in  presenting  the 
story.  The  following  statements  are  typical  of  those 
handed  in. 

1.  To  stimulate  the  children's  interests  so  each  child  will  observe 

nature. 

2.  To  interest  children  in  nature  work  through  the  Story  of  the 

Quail. 

3.  To  assist  pupils  to  become  better  readers. 

4.  To  teach  children  the  life  of  quails. 

5.  To  get  the  thought  of  the  printed  page. 

6.  To  acquaint   the  children  with  the  events  in  the  life  of  the 

quail. 

7.  To  teach  the  life  of  the  quail,  its  haunts,  calls,  offspring,  food, 

enemies,  and  its  value  to  man. 

8.  To  give  the  child  a  clear  insight  into  the  facts  of  nature  which 

enter  into  the  life  of  the  quail. 


6o  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

g.   Specific. 

To  lead  the  children  to  a  definite  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  the  haunts,  habits,  food  supply,  offspring,  and  enemies  of  Mr.  Bob 
and  his  mate. 
General. 

To  lead  the  children  to  a  better  control  of  the  printed  page,  and  to 
a  better  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  habits,  life  history, 
and  economic  significance  of  quails. 

A  critical  examination  of  these  aims  shows  a  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  notions  which  these  teachers  had  of  the  function 
and  structure  of  this  particular  subject-matter. 

Indirect  and  Specific  Functions  of  Subject-Matter.  —  The 
purpose  which  the  majority  of  these  teachers  intended  to 
realize  through  the  use  of  this  story  might  well  have  beexi 
realized  through  the  use  of  other  stories.  It  was  not  de- 
pendent upon  and  pecuHar  to  the  specific  organization  of 
this  story,  consequently  the  function  which  they  attempted 
to  utiUze  is  known  as  the  indirect  function .  This  function 
is  nicely  emphasized  in  numbers  3  and  5.  It  is  so  general 
that  it  readily  applies  to  any  selection  capable  of  being 
understood  by  the  children.  No.  i  could  be  applied  to 
any  treatise  upon  nature,  while  Nos.  2,  4,  6,  and  8  might  be 
applied  to  almost  any  story  or  discussion  on  the  life  and 
characteristics  of  quails. 

Such  an  indirect  use  of  material  indicates  a  number  of 
teaching  ailments.  It  may  reveal  inabihty  to  organize, 
indifference,  laziness,  or  other  defects  of  which  the  profession 
is  aware.  This  vague  notion  of  the  specific  intrinsic  func- 
tion of  subject-matter  is  not  complimentary  to  the  teacher 
and  seldom  should  be  tolerated. 

It  is  evident  that  No.  7  can  apply  only  to  those  selections 
which  include  all  of  the  factors  in  the  Story  of  the  Quail. 
The  teacher  who  gave  this  aim  had  definitely  determined 


ORGANIZATION   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  6 1 

the  specific  purpose  of  the  story  and  evidently  intended  to 
expose  this  idea  to  the  child.  No.  9  goes  a  step  farther. 
It  proposes  to  make  this  story  reveal  something  to  the 
child  which  no  other  story  can  reveal.  It  recognizes 
the  specific  intention  of  the  story  and  appreciates  the  fact 
that  this  intention  is  revealed  through  specific  personalities. 
Such  an  appreciation  gives  a  warmth  and  an  individuality 
to  the  story  that  cannot  be  secured  through  No.  7.  No. 
9  also  recognizes  that,  while  ultimately  children  should  get 
a  better  control  of  the  printed  page  and  a  better  under- 
standing and  appreciation  of  the  "habits,"  "Hfe  history," 
and  "economic  significance  of  quails,"  this  can  be  secured 
only  by  getting  the  "control,"  "understanding,"  and  "ap- 
preciation" of  each  individual  selection  which  has  a  spe- 
cific intrinsic  function  to  perform.  In  other  words,  the  best 
way  to  realize  generalizations  is  through  the  mastery  of 
specific  structures.  The  indirect  values  of  subject-matter  will 
come  as  a  by-product  while  the  pupil  is  mastering  the  specific 
values.  Any  other  order  of  procedure  is  poor  economy,  and 
poor  pedagogy. 

If  the  specific  function  of  each  selection  studied  in  school 
Is  to  be  revealed  to  children,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that 
the  teacher  not  only  be  able  to  determine  this  function 
through  a  careful  organization  of  the  parts  of  the  selection, 
but  that  he  lead  his  children  to  an  understanding  of  the 
logical  arrangement  that  they  too  may  understand  and 
appreciate  the  specific  purpose  of  the  selection. 

Much  of  the  vagueness  of  classroom  teaching  results 
from  the  monotonous  grinding  of  details.  Like  posts  in 
the  fence,  each  fact  in  turn  seems  to  occupy  a  single  and 
isolated  place  in  a  series  of  details.  Organization  upheaves 
the  monotonous  plain  of  thought  and  converts  it  into  moun- 


62  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

tain  peaks  and  valleys.  It  takes  cognizance  of  the  relativity 
of  the  parts  of  subject-matter  by  breaking  up  a  unit  mass 
into  its  coordinate  and  subordinate  parts,  and  thereby 
displays  these  in  graphic  representation  to  the  mind. 

Organization  and  Retention.  —  A  unit  of  subject-matter 
should  offer  no  difficulty  of  retention  to  the  teacher 
while  the  recitation  is  in  progress.  Indeed,  a  strong  argu- 
ment for  organization  is  that  it  reduces  facts  to  order 
and  thus  materially  reduces  the  number  of  units  to  be  re- 
tained. The  teacher  who  has  not  reduced  her  subject- 
matter  to  organic  terms  will  be  unable  to  proceed  logically 
or  forcibly.  More  embarrassment  ensues  from  a  confusion 
of  the  relevancy  of  parts  than  from  any  other  source.  Any 
subject-matter  that  is  worthy  of  presentation  should  be 
presented  in  the  most  convincing  way,  no  matter  whether 
it  be  in  the  primary  and  intermediate  grades  or  in  the  high 
school  and  university.  Much  of  the  twaddUng  in  primary 
teaching  is  due  to  the  fact  that  sentiment  rather  than  insight 
determines  the  presentation  of  the  materials  to  be  taught. 

Some  Typical  Organizations.  —  The  following  organiza- 
tions are  compared  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  generaliza- 
tion of  this  very  simple  and  fundamental  truth. 

First  Organization 
Unit  of  Instruction  —  William  Tell 

1.  Tyrant  Gessler  orders  people  to  bow  down  before  his  cap. 

2.  William  Tell  refuses  to  do  so. 

3.  Gessler  orders  him  to  shoot  the  apple  on  his  son's  head. 

4.  Tell  begs  to  be  excused  but  is  told  that  he  will  be  shot  if  he  refuses. 

5.  Tell  shoots  the  apple  from  his  son's  head. 

6.  Gessler  displeased,  people  glad. 

7.  TeU  was  prepared  to  kill  Gessler  if  he  missed  the  apple. 

8.  Later  he  did  kill  Gessler. 


ORGANIZATION  OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  63 

Second  Organization 
Unit  of  Instruction  —  William  Tell 

I.    His  country. 

1.  Its  present  government. 

2.  Its  government  in  Tell's  day. 
A.  Its  ruler. 

a.  Gessler. 
II.   His  difficulty  with  Gessler. 

1.  Cause. 

2.  The  danger  incurred. 

III.  Terms  of  his  freedom. 

1.  Must  shoot  apple  on  his  son's  head. 

2.  The  effect  of  this  requirement  upon  Tell. 

3.  The  effect  upon  Tell's  son. 

IV.  His  acceptance  of  Gessler's  terms. 

1.  Cause. 

2.  His  frame  of  mind. 

3.  His  boy's  spirit. 
V.   His  success. 

1.  Its  effect  upon  Tell  and  his  son. 

2.  Its  effect  upon  Gessler. 

3.  The  final  outcome  of  it. 

The  first  organization  is  one  which  was  taken  from  a 
student  teacher's  plan  book.  It  consists  of  a  series  of 
topics  in  the  order  of  their  presentation  in  the  story.  It 
suggests  the  forward  movement  of  the  story  but  does  not 
provoke  reflection  or  reveal  motives.  The  second  organi- 
zation keeps  the  hero  constantly  in  the  foreground.  The 
five  large  coordinate  points  refer  directly  back  to  the  main 
topic.  The  subpoints  of  each  main  topic  indirectly  revert 
back  to  the  same  main  topic  and  establish  a  logical  coherence 
of  all  the  parts.  This  arrangement  of  parts  to  reveal  the 
degree  of  relevancy  of  each  part  to  the  whole  is  a  logical 
organization. 


64  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

A  Lesson  in  Seventh-Grade  Geography 
First  Organization 

Unit  of  Instruction. 

Boundary,  position,  and  size  of  Australia. 
Organization  of  subject-matter. 

I.   Bodies  of  water  surrounding  Australia. 

1.  Name  all  of  the  oceans. 

2.  State  their  directions  from  Australia. 

3.  Name  all  oceans  serving  as  boundaries  to  Australia. 
II.    Position. 

1.  Name  directions  from  America  and  from  your  home. 

2.  Name  directions  from  other  continents  of  the  world. 

3.  Distance  from  America  (will  have  children  add  the  miles 

as  indicated  on  the  ship  routes). 

4.  Latitude  and  longitude. 

A.  Comparison  with  the  latitude  of  your  home. 

B.  Name  tropic  and  the  number  of  degrees  from  the  equa- 

tor, that  passes  through  Australia. 
III.   Size. 

1 .  Name  continents  in  order  of  size. 

2.  Compare  Australia  with  the  United  States  and  with  Europe. 

Second  Organization 

Location,  Area,  and  Population  of  Australia. 
I.   Location  of  Australia. 

1.  Relative  to  other  continents. 

A.  North  America. 

a.  Its  direction  from  AustraHa. 

b.  Its  distance  from  Australia. 

B.  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

a.  Direction  of  each  from  Australia. 

b.  Distance  of  each  from  Australia. 

2.  Relative  to  latitude  and  longitude. 
A.  Latitude. 

a.  In  degrees. 


ORGANIZATION   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER  6$ 

B.  Longitude. 
a.  In  degrees. 
3.  Relative  to  bounding  waters. 

A.  On  the  north. 

a.  Timor    Sea,    Arafura    Sea,    Gulf    of    Carpenteria, 
Torres  St. 

B.  On  the  east. 

a.  Coral  Sea,  Pacific  Ocean. 

C.  On  the  south. 

a.  Great  Australian  Bight. 

D.  On  the  west. 

a.  Indian  Ocean. 
II.   Area. 

1.  In  surface  miles. 

2.  In  comparison  with  other  countries. 
III.    Population. 

1.  Total. 

2.  Relative. 

3.  Density  of. 

A  Lesson  in  Eighth-Grade  Reading 

First  Organization 

Unit  of  Instruction. 

The  poem,  "  Paul  Revere's  Ride." 
Organization  of  subject-matter. 
I.   The  story  told  by  the  poem. 
II.   Reading  of  poem. 

1 .  General  expression  —  joyous. 

2.  Articulation  and  pronunciation. 

A.  Clear. 

B.  Rapid. 

3.  Unfamiliar  words. 

A.  Pronunciation. 

B.  Meaning  from  content. 


66  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Second  Organization 
Unit  of  Instruction. 

The  poem,  "Paul  Revere's  Ride." 
Organization  of  subject-matter. 
I.   The  Introduction. 

1.  Name  of  the  rider. 

2.  The  time  of  the  ride. 

II.   Events  leading  up  to  the  ride. 

1.  The  march  of  the  British  anticipated. 

2.  Plans  for  notifying  the  country  folk. 

A.  Signals. 

B.  Position  of  advantage  by  Revere. 

a.  His  trip  across  the  bay  to  the  Charlestown  shore. 
(i)  British  man-of-war. 

3.  Indications  of  the  march. 

A .  Men  at  barrack  door. 

B.  Marching  of  grenadiers. 

III.  Events  immediately  preceding  the  ride. 

1 .  The  friend  climbed  the  tower. 

A .  View  of  the  belfry  chamber. 

B.  The  churchyard. 

C.  Boats  on  the  bay. 

2.  Revere  in  readiness  on  the  opposite  shore. 

A.  Booted  and  spurred. 

B.  Alert  for  the  signals. 

C.  The  first  lamp  —  the  second. 

IV.  The  ride. 

1.  Its  importance. 

A .  The  fate  of  a  nation  was  riding. 

2.  Direction  and  character  of  the  road. 

3.  Arrival  at  Medford  town. 
A.  Occurrences  there. 

4.  Arrival  at  Lexington. 

5.  Arrival  at  Concord. 
V.   The  results  of  the  ride. 

1.  "The  British  regulars  fired  and  fled." 

2.  Revere's  spirit  of  defiance  became  a  precedent  for  American 

liberty. 


ORGANIZATION  OF   SUBJECT-MAT lER  67 

The  stress  put  upon  the  specific  intrinsic  function  of 
subject-matter  must  not  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  power 
to  organize  is  the  only  essential  qualification  needed  by 
the  teacher.  It  is  essential  but  not  sufiicient.  Teaching 
involves  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  which 
the  teacher  proposes  to  reveal  to  the  child,  and  furthermore, 
it  involves  skill  in  stimulating  the  child  to  lay  hold  of  the 
thing  the  teacher  wishes  to  reveal.  A  logical  organization 
is  required  to  meet  the  first  of  these  prerequisites.  It  may 
or  may  not  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  second  one. 

Psychological  Approach.  —  To  mature  and  experienced 
persons,  the  presentation  of  subject-matter  in  a  logical  way 
ordinarily  will  stimulate  interest.  Less  mature  persons  may 
be  little  interested  in  the  logical  order  of  subject-matter. 
They  may  be  engrossed  in  interests  wholly  remote  from 
the  formal  subject-matter  of  the  schoolroom.  In  such  an 
event  the  teacher  will  need  to  approach  the  new  material 
through  some  of  the  children's  active  interests.  In  the 
presentation  of  William  Tell,  the  teacher  might  find  the 
children  more  interested  in  topic  II  than  in  topic  I  and  in 
the  preliminary  discussion  might  find  it  advantageous  to 
begin  with  this  topic.  In  ''  Paul  Revere's  Ride  "  he  might 
find  topic  II  more  fascinating  than  topic  I,  and  in  that  event 
he  might  be  justified  in  approaching  the  poem  through  that 
order  of  the  topics.  Such  an  arrangement  of  parts  is  known 
as  a  psychological  organization  of  subject-matter.  It  is  an 
arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  structure  in  the  order  of  their 
degree  of  appeal  to  the  experiences  and  interests  of  the 
child. 

Interrelation  of  Logical  and  Psychological  Organization.  — 
It  may  be  argued,  since  in  the  last  analysis  the  child's 
experiences  are  to  determine  in  a  measure  the  order  of 


68  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

presenting  the  topics  in  a  selection,  that  it  is  useless  to 
organize  subject-matter  logically.  There  would  be  no 
need  of  a  logical  organization  of  subject-matter  if  the 
purpose  of  teaching  were  merely  to  interest  children.  For- 
tunately there  is  a  greater  responsibility  than  this.  Chil- 
dren should  leave  the  school  with  some  very  definite  ability 
to  interpret  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  others.  But  inter- 
pretative ability  means  capacity  to  analyze  structures  which 
convey  thought.     It  means  power  to  organize  logically. 

The  purpose  of  the  creator  will  not  be  understood  until 
his  creation  is  understood.  If  the  logical  organization  has 
been  mastered  by  the  teacher  he  will  at  the  proper  moment 
find  it  easy  to  reveal  to  his  pupils  the  relative  importance  of 
the  parts  to  the  unifying  idea.  Such  an  organization  will 
provide  a  proper  emphasis  of  the  topics,  insure  an  adequate 
summary,  and  ultimately  will  expose  the  idea  embodied  in 
the  structure. 

Chronological  Organization.  —  A  chronological  organiza- 
tion of  subject-matter  is  often  mistaken  for  a  logical  organi- 
zation. The  ease  with  which  this  organization  is  determined 
in  many  subjects  accounts  for  its  general  use.  It  is  easy 
to  follow  either  the  time  order  or  the  hook  order  of  events  in 
literature,  history,  and  many  other  subjects.  There  is 
but  a  very  slight  causal  relation  in  such  an  order,  conse- 
quently the  "specific  intrinsic"  function  of  a  structure  is 
quite  likely  not  to  be  exposed  by  such  an  analysis.  Teachers 
of  force  and  vigor  will  break  through  the  shell  of  this  time- 
honored  treatment  of  subject-matter  and  lay  bare  the  vital 
relations  of  the  parts  involved  and  set  them  forth  in  a 
logical  arrangement  before  attempting  to  teach  such 
subject-matter. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   CHILD   FACTOR  IN   METHOD 

"Progress,  Man's  distinctive  mark  alone, 
Not  God's  and  not  the  beasts' :  God  is,  they  are; 
Man  partly  is,  and  wholly  hopes  to  be." 

That  man  has  made  "progress,"  evolved  from  lower 
forms  of  animal  life,  cannot  be  denied ;  that  progress 
is  "man's  distinctive  mark  alone"  is  only  partially  true. 
Other  animals  have  encountered  the  same  rigorous  cli- 
mate, endured  like  variations  in  food  and  shelter,  struggled 
with  relentless  diseases  and  fought  encroaching  enemies 
from  without  and  within  their  natural  groups,  and  con- 
sequently have  experienced  physical  improvement  and 
developed  greater  cunning.  Nevertheless,  they  have  been 
unable  to  determine  their  own  progress  or  consciously 
modify  their  own  social  relations.  In  the  whole  animal 
kingdom,  man  alone  has  consciously  learned  to  under- 
stand and  to  control  his  environment,  and  finally  to  trans- 
form it  to  meet  his  needs. 

Human  Nature  Accounted  for.  —  Before  the  Origin  of 
Species  by  Darwin,  the  special  creation  theory  of  Biblical 
literature  was  assumed  to  be  true.  To  "iorm  man  of  the 
dust  of  the  ground  and  breathe  into  his  nostrils  the  breath 
of  life"  in  a  single  act,  removed  from  man  the  responsibility 
of  accounting  for  his  own  superiority.  It  was  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  the  theory  of  evolution,  now  so  universally 

69 


70  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

accepted  by  biologists,  served  as  a  powerful  stimulus  to 
those  interested  in  the  causal  factors  of  structural  and 
functional  changes.  Out  of  this  unified  effort  on  the  part 
of  scientists,  there  have  developed  two  distinct  theories 
relative  to  the  origin  of  species. 

Two  Distinct  Theories  of  Evolution 

One  of  these  theories  justifies  differences  in  organic 
life  on  the  assumption  that  organisms  adjust  themselves 
to  a  changing  environment  and  then  transmit  the  character- 
istics thus  acquired.  The  other  theory  accounts  for  these 
differences  on  the  principle  of  congenital  variation.  By 
this  principle  changed  environmental  conditions  are  given 
as  cause  of  parental  variation.  Out  of  the  multitude  of 
offspring,  those  best  adapted  to  the  environment  survive. 
It  is  argued  that  those  thus  fitted  by  chance  to  survive, 
under  the  changed  conditions,  and  in  accord  with  the  law 
of  variation,  will  give  birth  to  offspring,  many  of  whom  will 
have  characteristics  better  adapted  to  the  environment 
than  are  those  of  their  parents.  Those  thus  favored  by 
chance  when  the  life  struggle  becomes  intense  will  survive 
while  their  less  favored  relatives  will  be  forced  to  succumb 
in  the  unequal  competition.  Thus  by  slight  variations 
in  succeeding  generations,  species  are  selected  that  are 
quite  different  in  structural  and  functional  characteristics 
from  their  remote  ancestors. 

Transmission  of  Acquired  Characteristics. — The  "trans- 
mission of  acquired  characteristics,"  the  foundation  rock 
upon  which  the  first  of  these  theories  rests,  though  in  ill 
repute  to-day,  has  been  held  vahd  by  some  of  the  greatest 
scientists  of  the  last  century.     Darwin's  theory  of  pan- 


THE   CHILD    FACTOR   IN   METHOD  71 

genesis,  which  was  an  attempt  to  explain  the  theory  of 
acquired  characteristics,  accounted  for  differences  on  the 
assumption  that  the  organic  adjustment  of  an  individual 
to  a  changing  environment  is  registered  in  gemmules  cast 
off  by  the  various  cells  of  the  organism.  He  held  that  these 
gemmules  are  finally  caught  up  by  the  reproductive  cells 
and  thus  become  a  determining  factor  in  the  new  organism. 
La  Marck  and  Spencer  held  firmly  to  this  view  also,  while 
Galton,  though  accepting  it  at  first,  afterward  discredited 
it.  The  number  of  others  who  have  held  this  view  is  legion, 
although  rapidly  decreasing. 

It  were  fortunate  for  a  moral  and  industrious  people  if 
such  a  theory  were  true.  It  would  insure  permanency  to 
every  moral  victory,  every  worthy  thought,  and  every 
intense  emotion.  It  would  make  "Excelsior  "  a  biological 
as  well  as  a  social  heirloom.  Habits,  both  mental  and 
physical,  developed  through  efficient  teaching,  would  be- 
come accumulative  through  transmission,  thus  making  it 
possible  for  the  race,  by  its  own  organized  effort,  and 
through  the  instrumentality  of  the  school,  to  leave  "each 
low- vaulted  past,"  in  a  structural  sense,  for  one  "nobler 
than  the  last."  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  law  would  tend 
to  accentuate  individual  vices  engendered  by  abnormal 
conditions  in  an  environment,  and  thus  give  reality  to  the 
theory  that  the  acquired  sins  of  the  father  are  visited  upon 
the  children  even  to  the  third  and  fourth  generation. 

Congenital  Variation  and  Selection.  —  The  second  theory, 
which  accounts  for  organic  change  on  the  basis  of  congenital 
variation  alone,  was  first  advocated  by  Weismann.^  He 
conceived  the  notion  that  the  cells  of  a  developing  embryo 
very  early  in  its  development  migrate  to  that  part  of  the 

'  The  Germ  Plasm,  A.  Weismann.     New  York,  1893.     Scribner's. 


72  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

organism  in  which  they  subsequently  function.  The  re- 
productive cells  so  far  as  functional  influences  are  concerned 
are  thereby  soon  independent  of  other  cells.  This  inde- 
pendence of  the  reproductive  cells  in  location  and  function 
precludes  the  theory  of  pangenesis  or  other  theories  of  the 
transfer  of  post-natal  changes.  It  limits  the  possible 
capacity  of  an  individual  to  the  native  rather  than  to  the 
acquired  characteristics  of  his  ancestry. 

Since  hereditary  variation  is  the  only  means  of  biological 
progress  and  since  natural  selection  is  barred  by  civilized 
practices,  it  is  evident  that  a  deliberate  selection  of  ancestors 
whose  dominant  characteristics  are  needed  is  the  only 
effective  way  of  securing  rapid  and  permanent  advance  in 
physical  potentiality.  Modern  methods  of  breeding  which 
have  developed  the  splendid  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  fowls,  and 
plants  of  recent  years  are  based  upon  the  principle  that 
quahties  may  be  accentuated  by  selecting  ancestors  in 
whom  the  qualities  desired  have  become  pronounced  through 
hereditary  variation. 

Galton  maintained  that  "there  is  nothing  either  in  the 
history  of  domestic  animals  or  in  that  of  evolution  to  make 
us  doubt  that  a  race  of  sane  men  may  be  formed,  who  shall 
be  as  much  superior  mentally  and  morally  to  the  modern 
European,  as  the  modern  European  is  to  the  lowest  of  the 
Negro  races,"  by  the  process  of  selection.  He  says: 
"Individual  departures  from  this  high  average  level  in  an 
upward  direction  would  afford  an  adequate  supply  of  a 
degree  of  ability  that  is  exceedingly  rare  now,  and  is  much 
wanted."  ^ 

Though  recent  success  in  the  improvement  of  domestic 
animals  and  plants  substantiates  this  view,  the  religious 

1  Hereditary  Genius,  Galton.     Prefatory  Chapter,  1892  Edition. 


THE  CHILD    FACTOR   IN   METHOD  73 

and  ethical  status  of  our  time  makes  the  application  of  such 
methods  to  the  human  family  repulsive  and  therefore  un- 
attainable. 

Advancement  through  Accumulated  Experiences.  —  By- 
barring  the  deliberate  selection  of  ancestors,  this  law  of 
heredity,  so  generally  accepted  to-day,  seems  to  strike  at 
the  very  heart  of  human  progress.  It  brings  us  face  to  face 
with  the  question :  How  can  the  race  increase  its  mental, 
moral,  and  vocational  capacity  if  each  generation  begins 
on  as  low  level  as  its  predecessor?  If  the  transmission  of 
superior  nerve  fiber  through  selection  were  the  only  means 
of  improving  the  race,  there  could  be  little  hope  for  a  moral 
and  reHgious  people  to  advance.  Fortunately  there  are 
other  agencies  whereby  the  race  can  get  reUef. 

That  effort  is  not  accumulative  is  only  true  biologically, 
certainly  in  no  other  sense.  Viewed  from  a  biological  stand- 
point the  present  generation  has  inherited  none  of  the 
power  and  skill  acquired  by  the  preceding  generation.  In 
this  particular  the  race  has  gained  nothing  by  its  long  ex- 
perience. Barring  this,  it  is  the  "heir  of  all  the  ages." 
Though  the  present  generation  has  not  inherited,  in  modified 
nerve  tissue,  the  particular  literary  capacity  acquired  by 
Shakespeare  and  Browning,  it  has  inherited  "Hamlet"  and 
''Macbeth,"  "Pippa  Passes"  and  "Rabbi  Ben  Ezra" ;  and 
though  it  has  not  inherited  the  skill  acquired  by  Turner 
and  Landseer,  it  has  inherited  the  "Mouth  of  the  Seine" 
and  the  ' '  Fighting  Temeraire, "  "  Shoeing  the  B ay  Mare ' '  and 
the  "Monarch  of  the  Glen."  Though,  probably,  we  are 
no  better  off  biologically  than  our  fathers  were,  we  are 
certainly  heirs  of  the  social  accumulations  of  all  times. 
These  are  the  heritage  of  a  civihzed  people,  and  the  school 
is  its  agency  for  transmitting  them. 


74  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

The  teaching  process  is  the  link  that  unites  the  unde- 
veloped child,  on  the  one  hand,  with  his  social  heritage 
on  the  other.  The  permanency  and  completeness  of  that 
union  depend  largely  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching 
process.  The  phases  of  this  social  heritage  which  should 
be  presented  to  the  child  in  order  to  make  him  "socially 
efficient "  are  given  consideration  elsewhere.  The  phases 
of  child  activity  involved  in  utiUzing  the  social  heritage 
and  the  methods  which  should  be  employed  in  arousing 
these  various  phases  of  activity  will  be  considered  here. 

The  Reactive  Attitude  of  the  Child 

The  problem  which  most  concerns  the  educational 
practitioner  is  not  how  the  child  evolved,  but  what  he 
is  now  in  potential  consciousness  and  habit,  and  what  he 
is  capable  of  being  in  terms  of  conduct.  It  is  evident,  at 
the  outset,  that  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  child's  mental 
responsiveness  and  instinctive  tendencies  has  a  twofold 
bearing  upon  teaching.  First,  it  determines  the  character 
of  the  subject-matter  that  should  be  presented.  Secondly,. 
it  determines  the  character  of  the  response  that  should  be 
stimulated. 

In  educational  circles  we  boast  much  nowadays  of  our 
progress  in  applied  psychology,  of  our  knowledge  of  scientific 
principles,  of  the  science  of  teaching.  Those  who  talk 
loudest  of  our  educational  sanctification  often  seem  most 
obhvious  of  the  fact  that  many  who  teach  are  little  con- 
scious of  the  effect  that  present  knowledge,  habits,  ideals, 
and  prejudices  will  have  upon  future  needs,  interests,  and 
responsibihties.  Many  of  our  professionally  trained 
teachers  are  giving  more  weight  to  the  amount  of  subject- 
matter  covered  in  a  prescribed  period  than  they  are  to  the 


THE   CHILD    FACTOR    IN   METHOD  75 

interests  engendered  and  the  mental  attitude  established 
by  such  subject-matter ;  to  the  number  of  days  that  the 
child  attends  school  than  to  the  number  of  minutes  he  is 
actually  striving  to  solve  some  problem  for  which  he  has 
a  felt  need  ;  to  glibness  of  response  than  to  serious  purpose 
and  effort. 

The  blaseness  of  many  students  of  secondary  and  college 
standing  is  due  to  the  fact  that  no  great  interests  were 
inculcated  and  no  fundamental  habits  formed  in  them  in 
the  elementary  school.  The  miserable  marking  of  time, 
handing  in  papers  that  are  seldom  examined,  dismissing 
problems  that  are  of  vital  concern  to  the  child,  pottering 
with  needless  details  when  bright  and  willing  children  are 
hungering  for  problems  that  smack  with  worth-whileness, 
are  responsible  for  the  chronic  indifference  manifested  in 
many  of  our  schools.  Indeed,  blaseness  is  nurtured  in 
the  elementary  school  wherever  teachers  are  more  con- 
cerned with  form  than  results ;  with  the  manipulation  of 
subject-matter  than  with  the  child's  life  interests. 

To  teach  effectively  one  must  make  a  direct  appeal 
through  reason  to  the  pupil's  aims  and  purposes,  through 
native  satisfaction  to  his  reflexes  and  instincts.  The 
latter  appeal  usually  will  engender  a  sufficient  emotional 
momentum  to  insure  persistent  effort ;  the  former  appeal 
will  conserve  energy  and  establish  a  self-respect  essential 
to  individual  freedom.  Judging  from  common  school- 
room practices,  no  clear  distinction  is  made  between  reason- 
ing or  purposive  thinking  and  spontaneous  thinking.  Were 
they  the  same,  the  dry-goods-box  philosophers  who  fre- 
quent the  village  grocery  would  have  long  since  been  noto- 
rious for  their  contributions  to  the  sum  total  of  human 
thought. 


76  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Two  Types  of  Thinking 

In  order  to  evaluate  teaching  in  subjective  terms  it  is 
necessary  at  the  outset  to  distinguish  sharply  between 
spontaneous  thinking  and  purposive  thinking  or  reasoning, 
and  to  point  out  the  relative  difficulty  of  stimulating  each ; 
not  that  one  is  more  valuable  than  the  other  (both  are 
indispensable)  but  because  the  quality  of  teaching  required 
in  the  one  case  is  more  difficult  and  more  valuable  than  in 
the  other  and  consequently  denotes  a  finer  teaching  service. 

Spontaneous  Thinking.  —  Spontaneous  thinking,  which 
constitutes  the  major  part  of  one's  daily  consciousness,  is 
the  mere  flow  of  "trains  of  images"  in  the  stream  of  con- 
sciousness in  the  occurring  order  of  previous  experiences, 
or  in  a  fanciful  order.  The  order  of  these  "trains  of 
images"  depends  upon  the  psychic  law  of  "successive 
associations."  Images  may  be  associated  by  contiguity, 
similarity,  or  by  cause  and  effect.  The  nature  of  the 
association  depends  upon  the  juxtaposition  which  pre- 
vailed the  last  time.  Related  images  are  likely  to  reappear, 
dragging  their  former  associates  into  consciousness  with 
them.  This  law  of  association  is  accounted  for  physio- 
logically on  the  assumption  that  cortical  centers  in  the  brain, 
having  once  created  successive  images,  are  susceptible  to  a 
like  reaction  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  path  joining  the 
centers  is  made  more  permeable  by  the  impulses  which 
traverse  it. 

Since  repetition  of  the  successive  functioning  of  as- 
sociated centers  increases  the  permeability  of  the  pathways 
connecting  them,  repetition  is  an  important  factor  in  this 
kind  of  thinking.  Moreover,  the  character  of  the  as- 
sociation formed  determines  the  efficiency  of  the  thinking. 


THE   CHILD   FACTOR  IN   METHOD  77 

The  fundamentals  in  the  various  branches  of  knowledge 
are  basic  to  higher  thinking  and  should,  therefore,  be  subject 
to  immediate  recall  when  needed.  Consequently  much 
of  the  child's  early  school  hfe  should  be  spent  in  processes 
of  this  character.  The  long  drill  that  is  necessary  to  fix 
tables  in  arithmetic,  word  symbols  in  reading,  locative 
geography,  and  time  and  place  relations  in  history,  is 
evidence  of  the  teacher's  sense  of  responsibihty  in  this 
connection.  Since  the  value  of  these  facts  depends  upon 
the  accuracy  of  their  associations,  and  since  accuracy  and 
speed  depend  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  method  employed, 
it  follows  that  the  teacher's  method  in  fixing  such  associa- 
tions should  be  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  habit  formation,  (These  principles  are  given  in  another 
chapter.) 

Though  such  "trains  of  images"  are  absolutely  essential 
to  mental  life  and  though  they  are  the  foundation  rock 
upon  which  purposive  thinking  rests,  we  must  not  permit 
ourselves  to  be  deceived  by  the  delusion  that  such  a  state 
of  consciousness  is  "purposive  thinking"  of  any  serious 
sort.  Since  such  a  delusion  is  manifest  in  many  school- 
room practices  which  are  justified  by  the  theory  that  they 
stimulate  a  maximum  amount  of  reasoning  power,  we  shall 
consider  the  matter  more  in  detail. 

Example  of  a  Common  Delusion.  —  Modern  laboratory 
work  presents  concrete  evidence  of  this  very  common  de- 
lusion. The  impression  pretty  generally  prevails  that  this 
work  is  rich  in  purposive  thinking.  What  are  the  facts? 
The  following  is  a  brief  of  a  recitation  observed  by  the 
writer :  The  teacher  purposed  to  present  the  subject  of 
"air  pressure"  in  problematic  form  to  a  class  of  secondary 
pupils.     When  the  class  was  seated  the  teacher  disclosed 


78  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

the  problem  in  mind.  After  watching  a  little  while  for 
some  effect  of  the  disclosure,  which  did  not  appear,  he 
aroused  certain  ideas  in  the  pupils'  general  stock  of  notions 
which  were  needed  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  at 
hand. 

After  looking  at  the  hollow  glass  tube  in  the  teacher's 
hand  and  some  mercury  on  the  table,  both  of  which  sug- 
gested a  recent  experiment  which  the  class  had  observed, 
a  member  of  the  class  suggested  that  the  tube  be  filled  with 
mercury.  The  teacher  smiled  while  he  visualized  the 
"  wonderful  "  feat  of  reasoning  that  had  been  accomplished. 
As  the  mercury  in  the  inverted  tube  came  to  rest,  the 
teacher,  moving  a  meter  stick  with  his  left  hand,  asked, 
"What  next?"  The  stick  easily  suggested  measure,  and 
the  single  column  of  mercury  suggested  what  to  measure. 
A  student  stated  the  association  and  the  teacher  smiled 
again.  "What  next?"  An  observing  pupil  saw  the 
balances  that  had  been  brought  in  for  the  purpose.  These 
naturally  suggested  weight  and  the  column  of  mercury 
suggested  weigh  mercury.  He  ventured  this  information 
and  the  recitation  continued.  Through  suggestive  ques- 
tions and  other  suggestive  stimuli  the  stream  of  conscious- 
ness of  this  class  in  science  was  pulled  out  (or  shall  I  say 
in?)  like  a  long  ribbon  until  the  spindle  (conclusion)  was 
finally  exposed,  and  the  class  was  given  credit  for  causal 
thinking. 

Purposive  Thinking.  —  Before  we  can  evaluate  this  very 
common  practice  in  school  work,  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
further  just  what  constitutes  purposive  thinking  or  reason- 
ing. In  the  language  of  Professor  Angell,  "reasoning  .  .  . 
is  .  .  .  thinking  carried  on  in  the  interest  of  some  plan 
which  we  wish  to  execute,  some  problem  which  we  wish  to 


THE    CHILD    FACTOR    IN  METHOD  79 

solve,  some  difficulty  which  we  wish  to  surmount."  '  Since 
the  foundation  of  reasoning  is  a  ^'wish  to  execute  —  to 
solve  —  to  surmount,''  it  is  evident  that  the  end  to  be  at- 
tained should  have  a  felt  value  to  the  reasoner,  else  there  is 
little  impetus  for  him  to  search  his  stock  of  ideas  and  stand- 
ards for  means  of  attaining  the  end  set  up.  Moreover, 
reasoning  to  be  valuable  to  the  pupil  should  be  self-directed. 
The  felt  need  from  within  and  not  the  objective  stimulation 
by  the  teacher  should  be  the  impetus  that  leads  him  to 
select  from  his  stock  of  ideas  those  that  are  most  appro- 
priate for  realizing  the  end  sought.  Furthermore,  these 
ideas  should  suggest  the  hahit  tool  that  is  to  be  employed  in 
arriving  at  the  end  or  final  conclusion. 

Examination  of  the  solution  of  the  above  problem  in 
physics  reveals  the  fact  that  the  "end"  sought  was  not  one 
that  had  a  genuine  "felt  need "  to  the  pupils,  since  it  did  not 
arise  out  of  their  direct  experiences.  Secondly,  the  pupils 
were  not  responsible  for  the  choice  of  the  special  ideas  that 
were  selected  from  their  stock  of  experiences.  These 
"bobbed  up"  in  response  to  the  remarks  of  the  teacher. 
Thirdly,  the  order  of  these  ideas,  the  "habit  tool,"  was 
suggested  by  the  teacher.  It  would  not  be  true  to  fact, 
nor  fair  to  the  teacher,  to  say  that  the  class  in  this  particular 
was  "guilty"  of  no  reasoning.  Doubtless  the  mere  sugges- 
tion of  an  end  to  be  attained  stimulated  some  of  the  pupils 
to  assume  a  responsibihty  for  its  attainment.  That  the 
remarks  of  the  teacher  caused  some  of  the  pupils  to 
search  seriously  for  ideas  that  gave  the  end  desired  and  that 
these  ideas  sometimes  stimulated  a  search  for  a  method  of 
applying  them,  is  quite  probable.     In  the  main,  however, 

1  Psychology,  Angell.    "  Judgment  and  the  Elements  of  Reasoning." 


8o  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

thinking  of  this  type  consists  of  "trains  of  images"  Hnked 
together  by  similarity.  Exercises  of  this  character  should 
be  evaluated  in  terms  of  information  secured  rather  than 
in  terms  of  reasoning. 

Factors  Involved  in  Purposive  Reasoning.  —  We  should 
keep  constantly  in  mind  that  the  prerequisite  of  wholesome 
reasoning  is  of  a  fourfold  character.  First,  there  must  be  a 
problem ;  second,  there  must  be  a  stock  of  ideas  sufficient 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  problem;  third,  the  problem 
must  have  a  felt  need  for  him  who  is  to  do  the  reasoning, 
else  he  will  lapse  into  a  state  of  indifference  ;  fourth,  certain 
efficient  ways  of  arranging  ideas  (mental  habits)  in  order 
that  the  desired  end  may  be  adequately  secured  should  be- 
come habitual  with  the  child.  The  neglect  of  any  one  of 
these  elements  will  seriously  handicap  the  reasoner.  The 
felt  need  may  be  enriched  and  intensified  by  an  appeal  to 
the  life  interests  and  to  the  instincts ;  a  rich  stock  of  ideas 
is  acquired  by  a  constant  widening  of  one's  experience 
in  the  field  of  knowledge ;  and  mental  habits  that  are 
essential  to  effective  reasoning  are  estabHshed  through 
driU. 

The  Problem.  —  In  practical  Hfe  one  doesn't  set  aside 
certain  periods  of  the  day  or  week  for  the  purpose  of  exer- 
cising his  reasoning  powers.  In  fact,  he  exercises  these 
powers  but  Httle  except  when  he  is  confronted  with  a  prob- 
lem of  vital  concern  to  him,  either  practical  or  philosophical 
in  character.  In  Uke  manner  school  children  think  most 
naturally  and  most  effectively  when  confronted  with  prob- 
lems which  appeal  to  them. 

The  responsibihty  of  raising  problems,  progressive  in 
character  and  related  closely  to  their  experiences  and  in- 
terests, is  therefore  the  most  serious  one  which  text  writers 


THE   CHILD   FACTOR   IN  METHOD  8l 

and  teachers  have  to  face.  Success  in  either  profession  is 
proportioned  to  the  skill  and  insight  employed  in  setting 
and  solving  problems. 

The  Project  a  Form  of  the  Problem.  —  The  stress  that  has 
been  given  to  this  form  of  the  problem  in  some  educational 
circles  has  made  almost  a  fetish  of  it  for  the  uninitiated.  In 
order  that  one  may  estimate  properly  the  relative  merit 
of  this  form  of  the  problem  he  should  understand  it  thor- 
oughly. 

Examples  of  the  Project.  —  The  problem  of  furnishing  a 
"play  house"  in  the  first  grade  is  a  familiar  example  of  the 
project.  A  small  "model  house"  is  usually  supphed  and 
the  children  are  required  to  furnish  it  appropriately.  This 
imposes  upon  the  children  the  responsibility  of  papering 
the  walls,  weaving  rugs,  making  paper  furniture,  preparing 
curtains  and  other  articles  needed  to  furnish  the  house 
properly. 

The  problem  of  making  a  flour  map  of  the  school  district 
in  which  the  school  is  located  is  a  suitable  project  for  a 
fourth  grade  in  geography.  The  solution  of  this  problem 
involves  a  knowledge  of  the  streams,  roads,  homes,  and 
towns  in  the  township  and  of  their  interrelation  to  each 
other.  Moreover,  it  requires  that  a  scale  be  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  map,  which  represents  the  unit  of 
measure  employed  in  measuring  the  township. 

The  problem  of  determining  the  necessary  cost  of  building 
a  barn  that  is  being  erected  in  the  neighborhood  is  a  suit- 
able project  for  an  eighth-grade  class.  To  accomplish  this, 
the  cost  of  excavating  for  the  walls,  the  cost  of  the  materials 
composing  the  walls,  the  amount  and  cost  of  the  lumber 
and  other  materials,  and  the  cost  of  the  labor  are  re- 
quired. 


82  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Through  the  solution  of  such  problems  the  well-trained 
teachers  will  expect  their  children  to  acquire  certain  definite 
knowledge,  skills,  ideals,  and  tastes  that  are  needed  for 
further  successful  work  in  the  schoolroom  and  that  are 
needed  to  meet  the  problems  of  after-school  days. 

The  Project  Defined.  —  The  project  is  a  complex  problem, 
the  solution  of  which  involves  the  solving  of  several  sub- 
sidiary problems  whose  solutions  are  needed  in  mastering 
the  complex  problem  or  project.  It  is  a  valuable  teaching 
device  when  the  teacher  deliberately  and  purposely  employs 
it  for  the  specific  purpose  of  stimulating  certain  desired 
controls  such  as  specific  knowledge,  ideals,  skills,  and 
tastes. 

Value  of  the  Project.  —  The  project  is  a  valuable  teach- 
ing device  in  that  it  lays  stress  upon  specific  values  in 
functional  sequence  and  thus  arouses  a  specific  motive  Jor 
the  subsidiary  problems  involved.  When  used  effectively  it 
develops  a  subject-matter  bent  in  the  pupil  and  makes  him 
aware  that  subject-matter  rightly  considered  is  a  means  to 
an  end  and  not  an  end  in  itself.  The  fundamental  prob- 
lems of  practical  life  are  projects  and  to  the  extent  that 
the  school  succeeds  in  making  its  problems  life-like,  it  will 
adopt  the  project  method  of  teaching. 

Basic  Experience.  —  Success  in  the  first  factor  of  purposive 
thinking  is  conditioned  by  the  experience  of  him  who  is  to 
solve  the  problems.  This  second  factor  has  been  a  source 
of  much  disagreement  as  well  as  much  failure  among 
teachers.  A  problem  is  subjective  and  not  objective.  It 
is  conditioned  by  one's  sense  of  values  and  by  the  experiences 
which  he  employs  in  an  endeavor  to  attain  those  values. 
A  problem  to  be  real  to  any  one  must  be  adapted  to  these 
two  psychic  aspects  of  his  nature. 


THE    CHILD    FACTOR   IN   METHOD  83 

This  factor  in  problem-setting  limits  success  in  this  field 
to  those  who  understand  and  appreciate  the  progressive 
unfolding  of  children's  minds  and  the  consequent  experiences 
and  values  which  accompany  this  unfoldment. 

A  Felt  Need.  —  A  third  prerequisite  to  purposive  thinking, 
and  one  inseparable  from  experience,  as  the  above  dis- 
cussion indicates,  is  a  consciousness  of  a  felt  need  for  the 
value  to  be  attained  through  the  solution  of  the  problem  in 
question.  Perhaps  no  other  factor  of  purposive  thinking 
has  been  so  instrumental  in  influencing  methods  of  present- 
ing subject-matter  as  this  one. 

Order  of  Essential  Factors  in  Causal  Thinking.  ■ —  The 
order  of  the  essential  elements  in  causal  thinking  is  so  closely 
related  to  a  "felt  need"  that  some  consideration  should  be 
given  to  two  common  practices  of  teaching.  The  so- 
called  "natural"  order  of  presenting  subject-matter  is  nicely 
illustrated  by  the  common  method  of  teaching  geography. 
Ordinarily  in  a  recitation  upon  Italy,  the  class  is  re- 
quired to  give  its  location  relative  to  that  of  adjoining 
states,  to  give  its  physical  and  natural  boundaries,  its 
physical  features,  its  products,  its  industries,  its  people, 
and  its  government,  in  the  order  followed  here.  Each  as- 
sociation is  largely  that  of  contiguity,  involving  little 
of  the  association  of  cause  and  effect. 

From  Effect  to  Cause.  —  A  different  procedure  and  one 
more  likely  to  arouse  a  felt  need  consists  in  gathering  data 
on  the  kind  and  number  of  products  that  the  local  com- 
munity receives  from  Italy.  It  is  natural  to  ask  in  this 
case,  why  ?  The  answer  will  lead  to  the  cause  —  the  occu- 
pations of  the  Italian  people.  An  answer  to  the  question 
as  to  why  they  are  so  occupied  will  lead  to  an  understanding 
of  climatic  conditions,  raw  materials,  commercial  relations 


84  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

with  other  countries,  intellectual  status,  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  relative  influence  of  Italy  as  a  nation.  This 
method  begins  with  the  effect  which,  from  the  very  nature 
of  thinking,  the  mind  tends  to  associate  with  cause. 

In  actual  life  one  never  goes  about  searching  for  cause 
until  the  effect  stares  him  in  the  face.  One  seldom  thinks 
of  an  insect  destroyer  until  insects  infest  his  plants,  of  laws 
to  punish  criminals  until  crimes  have  been  committed,  of 
antitoxin  until  certain  diseases  become  dangerous,  of  glasses 
until  the  eyes  begin  to  fail.  In  practical  life  one  begins 
with  a  certain  experience  and  then  proceeds  to  account  for 
it.  He  naturally  proceeds  from  effect  to  cause.  Racial 
progress  is  marked  by  the  number  of  right  solutions  of  this 
character.  The  need  always  arises  when  an  effect  presents 
itself.  With  this  felt  need  comes  motive  of  a  genuine  charac- 
ter. These  needs  are  individual  and  are  consequently 
fundamental  to  individual  existence. 

If  a  child  is  trained  to  associate  effects  with  their  appro- 
priate causes,  the  presentation  of  the  one  will  naturally 
arouse  an  intellectual  and  an  emotional  attitude  for  the 
other.  One  who  has  never  worn  buttons  on  his  coat  is 
little  concerned  if  a  new  garment  has  no  means  of  fastening 
the  sides.  On  the  other  hand,  a  buttonless  coat  will  arouse 
an  intense  interest  in  him  who  has  habitually  associated 
buttons  in  their  natural  relation.  Related  experiences 
are  undoubtedly  basic  factors  of  interest  and  of  causal 
thinking  as  well.  The  recurrence  of  one  member  of  a  pre- 
vious association  is  likely  to  engender  an  interest  in  its  as- 
sociate member.  Moreover,  it  tends  to  stimulate  anxiety 
in  the  cause  of  the  disassociation. 

Instinctive  Element  in  Need.  —  Felt  needs  also  grow  out 
of  certain  racial  habits.     I  refer  here  to  the  social  instincts. 


THE   CHILD    FACTOR   IN   METHOD  85 

Until  recently  we  have  underestimated  the  value  of  these 
social  instincts  in  securing  motive  for  work.  The  old 
slogan  was  "work  for  the  love  of  the  work."  It  ignored 
the  fact  that  man  survived  because  of  certain  predominating 
tendencies  to  fight,  to  strut,  to  accumulate,  to  love,  and  to 
hate.  The  modified  form  of  these  old  instincts  gives  rise 
to  many  of  the  motives  that  stir  men  to  untiring  effort. 
Why  do  men  who  are  worth  milHons  of  dollars  strive  for 
more  wealth?  Certainly  not  because  wealth  will  add 
directly  to  their  happiness  or  that  of  their  friends.  They 
do  it  largely  from  a  desire  to  beat  the  other  fellow,  to 
dominate  and  control,  both  of  which  are  modifications  of 
the  fighting  and  strutting  instincts.  The  spirit  of  emulation 
is  a  great  stimulant  in  the  business  world,  on  the  race  track, 
the  playground,  and  on  the  athletic  field.  There  is  no 
legitimate  reason  why  the  work  of  the  schoolroom  should 
be  exempted  from  such  a  stimulant. 

Professionally  trained  teachers  have  relied  too  much 
upon  the  efficacy  of  the  technique  of  the  recitation  for  ade- 
quate motivation.  Carefully  organized  subject-matter, 
well-directed  questions,  good  assignments,  and  concrete 
materials  are  all  essential  means  in  the  teaching  process, 
but  they  are  seldom  sufficient.  It  is  not  enough  to  lead 
children  to  ^^ think  through  an  assignment"  to  ^'acquire 
information,''''  and  to  "reason,"  though  such  practices  are 
very  desirable.  Good  teaching  does  this  and  more.  It 
engenders  the  desire  to  accomphsh  something,  to  achieve, 
to  win  honorably.  It  lays  the  emotional  foundation  for 
permanent  life  interests.  If  "achievement"  is  the  end  of 
educational  effort  the  teaching  process  should  establish 
an  emotional  momentum  that  will  ultimately  insure  this 
coveted  goal.     The  effects  of  so  much  present-day  method 


86  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

seem  to  extend  little  beyond  the  classroom.  This  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  more  concern  is  given  to  im- 
mediate than  to  mediated  interests. 

By  no  means  are  all  of  the  children  that  are  subjected  to 
modern  methods  dulled  in  the  spirit  of  achievement.  The 
leaders  in  the  class,  those  to  whom  the  majority  of  the  class 
look  for  the  final  word,  are  saturated  with  it.  These  leaders 
win,  not  so  much  because  of  superior  ability  to  reason,  but 
because  of  the  instinctive  desire  to  win  and  thereby  secure 
the  approval  of  their  fellows  and  their  teacher.  It  was  this 
spirit  of  emulation  that  gave  the  unusual  zest  to  the  old 
spelHng  school  and  debates,  and  to  those  games  that  have* 
persisted  down  through  the  ages.  It  is  reasonable  to  pre- 
dict that  many  of  the  duller  students  are  capable  of  ac- 
comphshing  effective  work  if  only  the  desire  to  win  can  be 
engendered  in  them. 

Negative  Incentives  Retard  Progress.  —  Strangely  enough, 
observation  of  many  of  our  schoolroom  practices  is  sufficient 
to  convince  one  that  winning  is  often  suppressed  by  prac- 
tices that  are  intended  to  engender  it.  In  order  to  improve 
the  effort  of  children  they  are  threatened  with  failure  in 
grades,  with  being  kept  in  after  school,  with  corporal 
punishment,  and  finally  with  expulsion.  With  what  re- 
sults ?  Instead  of  increasing  interest  in  the  subject-matter, 
such  practices  cause  the  child  to  associate  the  displeasure 
arising  from  the  punishment  with  the  subject-matter  over 
which  the  trouble  arose.  Each  punishment  thus  tends  to 
establish  a  stronger  disHke  for  the  subject  and  for  the 
teacher  who  presents  it,  and  consequently  increases  the 
need  of  more  punishment. 

It  is  pretty  certain  that  if  these  retarded  interests  are  to 
be  revived,  the  negative  appeals  that  have  been  in  vogue 


THE   CHILD   FACTOR   IN   METHOD  87 

for  so  long  must  be  abandoned.  The  appeal  must  be 
positive  and  directly  to  the  child's  interests,  both  native 
and  acquired.  The  subject-matter  must  be  related  directly 
to  those  experiences  that  have  a  felt  value  for  him.  Once 
something  worth  while  is  accomplished  it  should  receive 
social  recognition. 

Success  a  Positive  Incentive.  —  "Nothing  succeeds  like 
success."  Success  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  interest  in  any  subject.  The  child 
must  be  made  to  feel  that  he  can  and  does  succeed.  Ordi- 
narily teachers  are  anxious  to  approve  by  smile,  or  word,  or 
grade,  the  success  of  those  who  do  exceedingly  well,  while 
they  reward  but  little  the  improvement  of  those  who  are 
relatively  weak.  Man  is  so  constituted  that  he  finds  pleasure 
in  recognized  achievement,  and  displeasure  in  failure.  The 
untrained  child  is  more  susceptible  to  these  influences  than  is 
the  adult.  In  actual  life,  man,  through  the  sifting  process, 
usually  adjusts  himself  to  the  field  of  opportunity  in  such 
a  way  as  to  insure  success. 

Fortunately  the  school  can  be  more  flexible  than  are 
circumstances  in  real  Hfe.  Its  flexibility  permits  materials 
and  methods  to  be  adjusted  to  the  capabihties  and  desires 
of  the  child  and  thereby  insures  his  success.  Success  thus 
secured  will  create  in  him  a  feehng  of  worth  and  a  sense  of 
achievement  that  will  drive  him  on  to  further  effort.  It 
must  not  be  inferred  that  the  work  is  to  be  made  easy  — 
far  from  it.  No  adult  finds  interest  in  winning  a  "baby" 
game.  Neither  do  children  develop  life  interests  in  the 
accompKshment  of  deeds  that  do  not  test  their  mettle.  A 
strenuous  test  of  mental  fiber  is  imperative  to  zest  for 
achievement. 

Variation  in  Instinctive  Responses.  —  Any  practical  use 


88  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

of  the  instincts  involves  an  understanding  of  their  dominance 
in  the  life  of  the  child.  Curiously  enough  the  instinctive 
dominance  varies  with  the  growth  of  the  child.  An  in- 
stinct may  hold  the  center  of  the  arena,  so  to  speak,  at  one 
stage  of  the  child's  development  and  be  relatively  submerged 
by  a  stronger  instinct  at  another  period.  The  hoarding  or 
assembling  instinct  so  pronounced  in  the  pre-adolescent 
period  is  submerged,  indeed  almost  negatived,  by  the 
social  instincts  of  the  adolescent.  Again,  the  instinctive 
desire  for  the  "myth"  in  early  childhood  is  submerged 
later  by  the  strong  instinctive  longing  for  the  heroic  story 
at  the  ages  of  ten  to  thirteen,  and  even  later.  Usually 
the  hero  in  the  adolescent  period  is  one  whose  heroism  is 
actuated  by  pure  motives. 

It  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  know  of  these  instinctive 
outcroppings  that  she  may  select  subject-matter  that  will 
create  a  maximum  amount  of  interest.  This  is  no  new 
philosophy.  "Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot"  is  a  maxim 
the  truth  of  which  is  as  old  as  human  experience.  Such  a 
philosophy  is  a  protest  against  handing  courses  of  study 
down  from  above.  "Lights  to  Literature  "  and  "Stepping 
Stones,"  chosen  from  an  adult  point  of  view,  are  likely  to 
incite  little  interest  in  children.  Chosen  on  the  basis  of 
the  appeal  they  make  to  the  child,  they  will  be  "Hghts"  and 
"steps"  that  stimulate  a  felt  need. 

No  sharp  and  fast  lines  can  be  laid  down  relative  to  the 
time  and  prominence  of  the  marked  interpretative  stages 
of  the  child.  Observation  of  children's  activity  in  their 
unrestrained  moments  furnishes  tTTe~l3ysT  kejTto'th'eir  in- 
terests. Suffice  it  to  say  that  teaching  becomes  a  fine  art 
when  the  teacher  is  able  to  draw  upon  those  materials  which 
will  stimulate  in  the  child  a  maximum  interest  in  the  things 


THE   CHILD    FACTOR   IN   METHOD  89 

that  directly  equip  him  to  meet  best  liis  obligation  as  a 
member  of  a  highly  organized  group. 

Habits  of  Reasoning.  —  This  fourth  factor  in  purposive 
thinking  is  overlooked  by  teachers  who  believe  that  power 
to  reason  is  an  accumulated  potentiaKty  that  has  resulted 
directly  from  reasoning.  Once  this  habit  of  reasoning  is 
acquired  they  beheve  it  will  function  in  any  capacity. 
They  fail  to  realize  that  an  accumulation  of  reasoning  habits 
is  one  essential  factor  in  reasoning,  and  that  originality 
in  reasoning  depends  upon  the  selection  of  the  reasoning 
habit  that  is  to  be  used  to  reaHze  the  end  desired.  In 
order  that  a  child  may  find  the  cost  of  six  apples  which  sell 
at  five  cents  each,  it  is  imperative  that  he  have  the  follow- 
ing reasoning  habit.  Since  six  things  of  equal  value  cost 
six  times  as  much  as  one  of  the  things,  six  apples  at  five  cents 
each  cost  6X5  cents  or  30  cents.  With  such  a  mental 
habit  he  is  equipped  to  find  the  cost  of  cows,  horses,  or 
lands,  etc.,  when  the  number  of  units  and  the  price  per 
unit  are  stipulated.  Teachers  hesitate  to  fix  such  relations 
on  the  ground  that  the  child  does  not  grasp  them  in  their 
entirety,  or  that  they  retard  originahty. 

If  the  teacher  waits  to  teach  the  notion  of  areas,  solids, 
letters,  and  words  until  they  are  grasped  in  their  entirety, 
it  is  probable  that  the  child  will  be  ignorant  of  the  funda- 
mental tools  of  thinking  throughout  life.  Once  the  habit 
of  rightly  relating  a  part  to  the  whole  is  fixed,  the  child  is 
equipped  with  the  tool  for  solving  problems  of  this  character. 
The  so-called  three  cases  of  percentage  are  built  upon  three 
habits  of  relating  a  part  to  the  whole.  The  exercises  in 
mental  arithmetic,  in  algebra,  and  in  geometry  are  justified 
mainly  because  they  furnish  drill  for  the  fixing  of  reasoning 
habits  that  are  believed  to  function  in  other  organized  effort. 


90 


THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 


It  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  the  school  exercises 
are  justifiable  only  in  so  far  as  they  produce  such  habits. 
Granting  this,  it  imposes  upon  the  teacher  the  responsi- 
bility of  determining  the  habit  that  any  particular  material 
is  fitted  to  fix  and  of  drawing  upon  this  subject-matter 
until  the  result  is  obtained.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  any 
subject  should  be  studied  solely  for  this  purpose. 

Individual  Dijference.  —  Much  of  schoolroom  practice  is 
based  upon  the  assumption  that  children  are  essentially 
alike.  Seats  of  a  uniform  size  for  all  children  of  a  grade, 
a  uniform  course  of  study  required  of  all,  an  absolutely 
minimum  requirement  for  promotion,  and  like  punishment 
for  like  offenses,  are  some  earmarks  of  the  prevailing 
practice,  which  reveal  the  common  notion  that  children 
are  alike. 

Expert  evidence  is  not  wanting  to  prove  that  children 
have  many  traits  in  common.  Neither  is  it  needed  to  prove 
that  children  have  marked  individual  traits.  The  former 
have  been  unduly  emphasized .  in  the  past.  The  latter  will 
receive  more  attention  in  the  future. 

Sense  Diferences.  —  Even  under  normal  conditions  of 
the  special  senses,  there  is  a  variation  in  sense  appreciation. 
The  probabilities  are  that  a  few  children  in  a  large  school 
group  are  keenly  eye-minded.  When  we  realize  that  prob- 
ably 20  to  40  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the  grades  have 
defective  eyes  and  ears,  the  problem  of  proper  individual  care 
becomes  decidedly  serious. 

We  have  known  of  a  color-blind  pupil  reaching  the 
seventh  grade,  and  an  extremely  near-sighted  pupil  reaching 
the  upper  classes  of  the  high  school  without  these  defects 
being  known  by  any  of  their  teachers. 

Apparent  stupidity,  indifference,  laziness,  and  oftentimes 


THE   CHILD   FACTOR  IN  METHOD  91 

insolence  are  frequently  due  to  defective  senses.  One  of 
the  first  duties  of  the  teacher  is  to  determine  the  status  of 
the  eyes  and  ears  of  his  children.  An  equally  important 
duty  is  to  make  adequate  provision  for  the  correction  of 
these  defects.  Tonsils,  adenoids,  and  teeth,  though  not 
affecting  the  immediate  work  of  the  classroom  to  the  ex- 
tent that  defective  eyes  and  ears  do,  undermine  the  child's 
health,  lower  his  vitahty,  and  ultimately  reduce  his  desire 
and  capacity  for  work.  Proper  care  of  the  teeth  alone 
furnishes  a  problem  sufficiently  large  to  require  the  vigilance 
of  all  the  altruistic  forces  of  any  community.  The  potential 
health  conditions  of  children  in  most  communities  are  an 
ignoble  monument  of  monstrous  proportions  to  the  igno- 
rance, indecision,  and  irresponsibility  of  the  group  conscious- 
ness in  these  communities.  Teachers  must  see  to  it  that  a 
similar  monument  is  not  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  next 
generation. 

Instinctive  Differences.  —  Other  deep-seated  differences 
in  children  will  not  be  overlooked  by  wide-awake  teachers. 
Shyness,  self-consciousness,  impulsiveness,  self-confidence, 
and  stubbornness  prevent  a  spiritual  unity.  The  negatively 
reactive  and  positively  reactive  children  are  the  source  of 
many  perplexing  situations  in  the  schoolroom. 

There  is  no  "cure-all"  for  these  conditions  which  may  be 
secured  by  a  six-weeks  attendance  at  a  summer  normal 
school.  Each  condition  requires  a  specific  remedy.  A 
broad  sympathy,  an  interest  in  educational  psychology, 
and  a  spirit  of  research  and  experimentation  are  some  essen- 
tial factors  required  in  the  solution  of  this  problem.  The 
negatively  reactive  child  needs  a  different  set  of  stimuli 
from  the  positively  reactive  child,  and  conversely.  The 
latter  are  frequently  the  teacher's  pets  while  the  former  have 


92  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

been  a  source  of  no  little  annoyance  to  those  teachers  who 
lack  interest  in  individual  differences. 

In  the  last  analysis  the  key  to  teaching  is  th.e^reacii'ue- 
attitude  of  the  child.  A  teacher's  consciousness  of  this  factor 
may  not  always  be  expHcit.  It  is  his  duty  to  make  it  as 
mearly  so  as  contact,  sympathy,  and  sane  experimentation 
with  children  and  a  famiharity  with  the  literature  on  child 
psychology  will  warrant. 


• 


*f\ 


f 


CHAPTER  VI 

TEACHING  BASED  UPON  WAYS  OF  LEARNING 

Meaning  of  Teaching.  —  Teaching  consists  in  the  con- 
scious direction  of  stimuli  to  the  end  that  the  teacher's 
aim  or  purpose  is  realized  in  terms  of  desired  pupil  con- 
trols. Controls  thus  purposed  by  the  teacher  may  be  ob- 
tained through  the  direct  stimulation  of  conscious  or  un- 
conscious imitation,  inductive  or  deductive  thinking,  one 
or  all  combined.  It  matters  little  whether  the  results 
be  higher  ideals,  worthy  prejudices,  better  habits,  an  in- 
creased number  of  facts,  or  richer  generalizations,  the 
conscious  direction  of  the  stimuli  that  results  in  the  change 
is  teaching.  He  who  consciously  directs  such  stimuli  is 
a  teacher. 

Relative  Value  of  Means  and  Ends.  —  Means  and  ends 
as  factors  in  the  teaching  process  are  inseparable.  Re- 
move the  latter,  and  an  incoherent  and  aimless  reaction 
results;  remove  the  former,  and  dreaming  and  senti- 
mentality prevail.  Preaching  and  teaching  are  distinct 
in  that  the  former  lays  more  stress  upon  desirable  ends  of 
attainment,  while  the  latter  emphasizes  the  goal  to  be  se- 
cured and  the  means  by  which  it  is  to  be  secured.  From 
the  standpoint  of  method,  means  is  decidedly  the  more 
important  factor.  There  are  many  teachers  who  know 
"what  were  good  to  be  done,"  to  one  who  is  efi&cient  in 

93 


94  THE  ESSENTL\LS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

choosing  and  directing  the  appropriate  means  in  its  realiza- 
tion. 

In  the  last  analysis  teaching  should  be  judged  in  terms 
of  behavior.  Changes  in  the  child's  ways  of  feeling,  think- 
ing, and  acting  are  not  necessarily  the  results  of  educa- 
tional endeavor,  since  there  are  many  environmental  in- 
fluences other  than  teaching  which  affect  the  child.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose,  however,  that  the  quality  of  one's 
teaching  varies  directly  as  the  worthiness  of  the  feelings, 
thoughts,  and  acts  of  the  pupil  varies  during  his  school 
life.  If  this  be  true  it  is  fundamental,  first,  that  the  teacher 
know  the  status  of  the  child's  controls ;  secondly,  that  he 
determine  the  changes  in  these  controls  which  his  teaching 
should  stimulate;  and  thirdly,  that  he  direct  the  natural 
processes  by  which  these  controls  are  acquired.  The  first 
two  of  these  items  are  to  be  given  consideration  elsewhere. 
The  last  will  be  considered  here. 

Methods  of  Learning 

Imitation  a  Method  of  Acquiring  Control.  —  One  may 
have  the  opinion  that  free  trade  is  the  best  revenue  measure 
possible  for  America.  This  opinion  may  have  been  formed 
from  reading  such  an  assertion  of  some  political  economist, 
from  hearing  a  political  speech,  or  from  listening  to  the 
declarations  of  would-be  philosophers.  In  each  case  it  is 
an  imitated  judgment  if  it  is  accepted  as  whole  cloth 
on  faith.  One's  notions  of  the  possessions  of  nations,  the 
population  of  cities,  the  severity  of  climates,  the  relative 
size  of  oceans  and  rivers,  the  worthiness  of  rulers,  the  self- 
sacrifice  of  leaders,  are  in  the  main  imitated  judgments. 

Conventionality  —  the  essential  factor  of  social  continuity, 
cooperation,  and  a  sympathetic  understanding  —  is  the  off- 


TEACHING  BASED   UPON  WAYS  OF  LEARNING         95 

spring  of  imitation.  We  go  in  flocks  and  herds.  We 
change  our  gowns  and  our  houses,  our  rehgion  and  our 
politics,  our  manners  and  our  policies,  in  conformity  with 
those  we  observe.  The  commonness  of  this  sort  of  judg- 
ment-forming makes  it  easy  for  impostors  to  impose  upon 
the  public.  It  gives  the  press  and  platform  a  tremendous 
influence  in  molding  the  affairs  of  nations.  Along  with 
the  opportunity  and  influence  comes  a  great  responsi- 
bility. It  is  the  business  of  the  public  school  to  engender 
in  the  Hves  of  those  with  whom  it  comes  in  contact  a 
strong  tendency  to  evaluate  in  terms  of  experience  the 
acts  and  opinions  of  others.  The  misdirected  and  awful 
conflict  recently  concluded  in  Europe  is  evidence  of  the 
unpreparedness  of  the  masses  to  act  independently  of  the 
narrow  and  biased  opinions  of  leaders  who  are  influenced 
by  their  own  personal  desires. 

Progress  depends  upon  one's  accepting  pretty  generally 
the  opinions  of  others.  Life  is  too  short  for  us  to  discover, 
as  individuals,  what  the  race  has  taken  ages  to  accomplish 
and  understand.  Knowledge  must  be  passed  along  to  a 
large  extent.  One  assumes  an  enormous  responsibihty  who 
is  charged  with  its  transmission.  The  school  should  see  to 
it  that  the  information  given  out  within  its  walls  be  the  most 
authentic  and  desirable  obtainable. 

The  process  of  judgment-forming  through  imitation  has 
a  method  side. as  well  as  a  subject-matter  side.  Facts  in 
geography,  history,  the  natural  sciences  —  in  all  subjects 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  —  must  be  taught.  There  is 
little  reason  involved.  The  intrinsic  value  of  these  facts  is 
seldom  realized.  An  essential  problem  for  the  school  is  to 
motivate  these  fundamental  facts. 

It  is  in  the  teaching  of  these  facts  especially  that  the 


96  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

teacher  needs  to  draw  upon  the  instinctive  tendencies  of 
the  child.  The  spirit  of  emulation  and  the  love  of  appro- 
bation should  be  appealed  to.  This  must  be  done  con- 
sistently and  with  sincerity.  Cheap  methods  and  in- 
sincerity should  be  avoided.  Approbation  in  the  hands 
of  teachers  is  often  so  cheap  that  even  children  feel  it, 
though  they  may  not  be  sufiEiciently  mature  to  discern 
the  peculiar  quality  of  its  cheapness.  No  other  device 
reveals  so  conclusively  a  teacher's  lack  of  devotion  to  her 
work. 

Reasoning  a  Method  of  Control.  —  Reasoning  is  the 
conscious  process  by  which  one  controls  a  situation,  when 
his  habits  fail  to  do  so.  This  control  may  be  attained  by 
the  discovery  of  principles  —  inductively ;  or  it  may  be 
attained  by  comparing  an  individual  situation  with  a 
general  principle  —  deductively.  In  this  connection  Dr. 
Dewey  says  :  ''This  double  movement  to  and  from  sl  mean- 
ing may  occur,  however,  in  a  casual  uncritical  way,  or  in 
a  cautious  and  regulated  manner.  To  think  means  in  any 
case  to  bridge  a  gap  in  experience,  to  bind  together  facts 
or  deeds  otherwise  isolated.  But  we  may  make  only  a 
hurried  jump  from  one  consideration  to  another,  allowing 
our  aversion  to  mental  disquietude  to  override  the  gaps ; 
or  we  may  insist  upon  noting  the  road  traveled  in  making 
connections.  We  may,  in  short,  accept  readily  any  sug- 
gestion that  seems  plausible ;  or  we  may  hunt  out  ad- 
ditional factors,  new  difficulties,  to  see  whether  the  sug- 
gested conclusion  really  ends  the  matter.  The  latter 
method  involves  a  definite  formulation  of  the  connecting 
links;  the  statement  of  a  principle,  or  in  logical  phrase, 
the  use  of  a  universal.  If  we  thus  formulate  the  whole 
situation,  the  original  data  are  transformed  into  premises 


TEACHING    HASED   UPON  WAYS  OF   LEARNING         97 

of  reasoning.     The  final  belief  is  a  logical  or  rational  con- 
clusion, not  a  mere  de-facto  termination."  ^ 

If  teaching  is  to  determine  the  character  of  this  "move- 
ment to  and  from  a  meaning"  so  it  will  occur  in  a  "cautious 
and  regulated  manner,"  instead  of  in  "a  casual  uncritical 
way,"  it  is  evident  that  the  teacher  must  understand  the 
factors  involved,  their  order  in  the  process,  and  an  effective 
means  of  properly  stimulating  them.  A  "cautious  and 
regulated  manner"  means  a  natural  manner  subjected  to 
the  restraint  of  desirable  habits. 

Just  as  analysis  is  the  first  step  in  all  thinking  so  it  is 
the  first  step  in  an  effort  to  secure  "cautious  and  regulated" 
reasoning.  When  a  "break  in  control"  or  a  "gap  in  ex- 
perience" occurs,  habit  has  failed  to  meet  the  emergency, 
and  the  processes  known  as  reasoning  arise  to  "bridge 
the  gap."  The  break  is  manifested  as  a  "felt  difiiculty," 
a  feeHng  of  an  obstacle  to  surmount  without  a  ready  means 
of  surmounting  it.  Just  as  one  tries  to  determine  the 
character  and  location  of  a  sudden  strange  sound,  so  in 
any  felt  difficulty,  his  first  endeavor  is  to  "get  a  Hne"  on 
the  situation  to  be  overcome.  One  examines  the  details 
or  data  that  appear.  Through  the  process  of  comparison 
possible  solutions  of  the  situation  are  suggested  as  tentative 
problems.  These  tentative  problems,  or  hypotheses,  are 
each  in  turn  checked  up  hastily  in  the  hght  of  apparent 
data,  and  one  of  the  many  problems  is  decided  upon  as 
being  the  most  feasible.  With  this  tentative  problem  de- 
cided upon,  new  data  are  assembled  for  its  solution. 

An  illustration  will  suffice  to  distinguish  the  main  line 
of  procedure  in  such  a  thought  process.  One  is  returning 
from   town   after   a   heavy   rain.     After   crossing   several 

^ How  We  Think,  Dewey.     "The  Double  Movement  of  Reflection." 


98  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

bridges  he  comes  to  a  stream  where  the  bridge  is  washed 
away.  There  is  a  "gap  in  experience."  A  "feeling  of 
difficulty"  at  once  arises.  After  the  width  and  depth  of 
the  stream  as  well  as  the  character  of  its  banks  and  the 
swiftness  of  its  current  have  been  observed,  there  follows 
naturally  the  hypothesis  :  Can  one  drive  across  the  stream  ? 
Then  in  detail  all  the  environmental  conditions  that  in- 
fluence such  an  act  are  checked  up  in  the  light  of  this  tenta- 
tive hypothesis.  Observation  of  the  qualities  of  the  team, 
the  character  of  the  land,  the  soft  soil  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream,  and  the  steepness  of  the  opposite  bank  follow  in 
response  to  tliis  hypothesis.  In  the  light  of  these  data 
the  first  hypothesis  is  abandoned.  A  second  hypothesis, 
involving  turning  about  and  driving  in  a  roundabout 
way  up  the  stream  for  several  miles  to  a  bridge,  is  ad- 
vanced. The  character  of  the  load,  the  road,  the  long 
distance,  the  possibiUty  of  the  bridge  being  washed  away, 
the  late  hour  of  arriving  home,  all  cause  an  abandonment 
of  the  second  tentative  hypothesis.  A  third  hypothesis 
involving  the  unhitching  of  the  horses,  riding  one,  and  lead- 
ing the  other  across  the  stream  comes  in  the  foreground. 
The  driver  recalls  similar  successes  in  this  connection. 
He  contemplates  the  early  return  to  his  home  and  the 
probabihty  that  the  contents  of  the  wagon  will  not  be  in- 
jured before  the  stream  subsides  sufficiently  for  the  wagon 
to  be  taken  across  it.  This  hypothesis  is  checked  up 
satisfactorily  in  terms  of  experience  and  desirable  values, 
and  immediately  the  act  is  executed.  The  driver's  early 
arrival  at  his  home  verifies  the  trustworthiness  of  the  third 
hypothesis. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  throughout  the  entire  solution 
of  the  major  problem  inductive  and  deductive  thinking  are 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON  WAYS  OF  LEARNING         99 

determining  factors.  The  early  examination  of  the  situa- 
tion —  comparing  the  banks,  stream,  and  the  turbulency  of 
the  current  with  similar  data  of  experience  —  and  the  tenta- 
tive suggestion  of  driving  across  the  stream  are  all  in- 
ductive activities.  The  further  testing  out  of  this  hy- 
pothesis in  the  light  of  more  varied  and  detailed  experience, 
resulting  in  the  rejection  of  the  scheme,  is  deductive  in 
character.  The  projecting  of  other  hypotheses  and  their 
rejection  or  acceptance  deal  successively  with  like  thought 
processes. 

This  illustration  may  suggest  the  highly  comphcated 
and  overlapping  processes  of  inductive  and  deductive  think- 
ing. If,  however,  one  should  refuse  to  note  the  character 
of  a  closely  woven  fabric  simply  because  of  the  complexity 
of  the  weave,  or  refuse  to  test  the  character  of  a  com- 
pound because  of  the  intricacy  of  the  interrelation  of  its 
elements,  he  would  be  considered  amateurish,  indeed,  in 
the  fields  of  textiles  and  chemistry. 

The  science  of  chemistry  depends  upon  the  power  to 
analyze,  isolate,  examine,  and  reunite  the  so-called  ele- 
ments into  compounds.  The  science  of  teaching  is  based 
upon  the  belief  that  mental  processes  may  be  analyzed 
and  their  conditions  and  remedial  means  diagnosed  and 
prescribed  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  definite  results. 
With  this  in  mind  we  shall  consider  the  processes  of  in- 
duction ahd  deduction  separately  just  as  we  would  consider 
positive  and  negative  electricity  separately  though  we 
well  know  that  their  interdependence  is  indispensable. 

Two  Types  of  Reasoning  —  I.    Induction 

A  study  of  the  history  of  social  and  industrial  evolu- 
tion  reveals   a  pronounced   racial   tendency   towards  in- 


lOO  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

duction.  Improvement  in  methods  of  war  and  of  travel 
upon  land  and  sea,  in  weapons  of  defense,  in  the  household 
arts  and  modes  of  dress,  in  methods  of  agriculture  and 
engineering,  in  the  treatment  of  diseases,  and  in  the  ap- 
pHcation  of  natural  laws  reveals  the  race's  continual 
progress  from  particular  experiences  to  generalizations. 
Each  generation  rises  to  higher  levels  by  the  generaliza- 
tions which  grow  out  of  the  comparison  of  its  own  ex- 
periences with  those  of  preceding  generations,  made  possible 
by  the  accumulation  of  knowledge  and  the  other  acquired 
controls. 

Inductive  Factors.  —  Individual  growth  reveals  modes  of 
progress.  Experiences  with  insects,  vertebrates,  climatic 
conditions,  and  seasonal  changes  involve  contacts,  percepts, 
and  certain  generalizations.  In  fact  everything  known  of 
racial  progress  and  of  individual  development  leads  to  the 
opinion  that  the  mastery  of  mind  over  matter  in  its  first 
stages  has  proceeded  from  contact  to  percept  and  from 
percept  to  concept.  Since  every  child  is  the  product  of 
racial  evolution,  there  is  an  abundance  of  theory  to  con- 
vince one  that  the  order  of  his  mental  processes  in  develop- 
ing intellectual  control  is  in  harmony  with  the  order  of  the 
mental  processes  of  the  race  in  its  development  of  intellectual 
control. 

Direct  Perception.  —  Since  contact  is  the  initial  step 
in  control,  it  is  evident  that  its  character  will  materially 
affect  the  character  of  the  control.  One's  presence  in  an 
environment  does  not  by  any  means  indicate  his  contact 
with  it.  Many  a  farmer's  son  goes  to  the  university  be- 
fore he  understands  the  flowers  which  grow  all  about  his 
home,  and  the  life  history  of  the  house  fly  and  mosquito 
which  have  pestered  him  from  childhood.     Contact  means 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON  WAYS  OF  LEARNING       lOl 

much  more  than  mere  physical  association.  It  means 
observing  things  in  response  to  an  instinctive  appeal  or  in 
response  to  life  interests.  A  boy  is  in  contact  with  those 
parts  of  his  environment  which  stimulate  his  instincts  or 
arouse  related  experiences. 

He  is  in  contact  with  the  fly  when  he  is  conscious  of  its 
injury  to  man,  and  when,  in  the  Hght  of  that  consciousness, 
he  examines  it  and  determines  its  life  history  for  the  purpose 
of  destroying  it. 

Adequate  contact  is  only  attainable  through  the  solu- 
tion of  problems.  The  old  epigram  that  you  can  lead  a 
horse  to  the  water  but  you  can't  make  him  drink  is  analogous 
to  the  one  that  seeing  is  not  understanding.  Nature- 
study  method  was  first  based  upon  the  theory  that  all  that 
is  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  nature  is  an  oppor- 
tunity to  be  present  with  it.  Early  nature-study  was 
largely  sentimental  because  it  lacked  the  problematic 
character  of  recent  study  in  that  subject.  Observation 
lessons,  comments  upon  the  characteristics  of  birds,  and 
the  more  conspicuous  fauna  and  flora  seemed  to  be  the 
main  method  of  attack. 

Like  other  subjects,  nature-study  has  been  brought 
"down  to  earth."  Definite  problems  are  set  in  order  to 
force  the  child  to  perceive  adequately  the  things  of  his 
environment.  Where  does  the  fly  live  in  its  various  stages 
of  development?  What  does  the  robin  feed  its  young? 
What  is  the  chief  food  of  the  toad?  Where  does  the  tree 
come  from  ?  —  are  problems  that  force  the  child  to  observe 
these  animals  and  plants  carefully  as  well  as  to  organize 
his  knowledge  effectively.  The  setting  of  worthy  problems 
is  the  most  effective  way  to  secure  adequate  sense  percepts. 

Indirect  Perception.  —  Similar  to  the  sense  percept  we 


102  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

have  an  image,  or  an  individual  notion,  removed  from  sense 
contact.  The  toys  of  one's  childhood,  Niagara  Falls,  New 
York  Harbor,  or  the  Soldiers  and  Sailors  Monument,  may 
all  be  individual  notions  obtained  by  sense  contact  long 
since  withdrawn.  Their  recall  is  conditioned  by  memory. 
The  characters  of  fiction  have  all  the  earmarks  of  sensed 
individuals,  yet  they  have  never  been  sensed.  They  are 
constructed  from  the  elements  of  experience.  Territories 
and  governments  in  geography,  campaigns  in  history^ 
narrations  and  descriptions  in  literature,  —  in  fact  most 
of  our  material,  the  so-called  subject-matter,  deals  almost 
entirely  with  images  removed  from  contact.  A  vital 
problem  for  the  teacher  is,  How  can  these  images  be  rounded 
out  and  made  true?  Again  the  problem  is  effective  hut  not 
sufficient. 

Concrete  materials  are  also  essential.  They  are  the 
warp  and  woof  of  constructed  images.  Maps,  charts, 
illustrations,  drawings,  constructive  work,  modeling,  cut- 
ting, measuring,  and  dramatization,  all  serve  to  stimulate 
definite  outlines  of  these  images.  Much  of  our  teaching 
results  merely  in  the  short-circuiting  of  oral  and  written 
words.  In  the  language  of  Hamlet,  it  consists  in  "words, 
words,  words."  To  give  content  to  these  words  means  to 
stimulate  imagery.  But  adequate  imagery  can  only  be 
secured  through  a  free  use  of  sense  materials.  The  so- 
called  "born  teacher"  always  draws  upon  these  sense  ma- 
terials in  full  measure  in  rounding  out  direct  images. 

As  McMurry  has  pointed  out,^  individual  notions  in 
themselves  are  of  Httle  value.  To  one  so  limited  in  his 
mental  growth  the  world  would  appear  as  one  hetero- 
geneous mass,  "a  big  blooming  confusipn,"  a  wilderness 

1  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  McMurry.     The  Macmillan  Co. 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON   WAYS   OF  LEARNING       103 

of  things.  The  most  significant  factor  in  induction  is 
therefore  the  process  of  changing  chaos  into  cosmos,  dis- 
order into  order,  and  of  grouping  individuals  into  classes 
—  the  discovery  of  the  common  and  essential  characteristics 
in  the  world  of  objects. 

Comparison.  —  Since  comparison,  which  is  a  factor  in 
this  process,  is  so  frequently  employed  inadequately  by 
inexperienced  teachers  it  deserves  a  fuller  consideration 
than  the  treatment  here  allows.  Hence  a  special  chapter 
is  set  aside  for  its  treatment. 

Generalization  and  Definition.  —  As  the  essential  elements 
of  a  compound  are  disassociated  and  recombined  by  the 
process  of  electrolysis,  so  the  essential  characteristics  of  a 
group  of  individuals  are  disassociated  and  recombined  into 
a  new  whole  — •  a  generalization  —  which,  like  the  Irish- 
man's flea,  is  dif!icult  of  location.  When  one  tries  to  image 
a  generalization  the  consciousness  flits  back  to  one  of  the 
many  individuals  with  which  it  has  "  synthetic  connections." 
Its  close  relation  to  individuals  makes  a  definition  of  a 
general  notion  the  most  difficult  process  of  the  classroom. 

Most  persons  know  baskets  from  the  individuals  of  all 
other  classes  of  objects,  but  who  is  ready  to  attempt  a 
definition  of  a  basket?  It  would  certainly  be  absurd  to 
attempt  to  define  a  basket  before  one  becomes  familiar 
with  all  sorts  of  baskets  in  use.  Each  person  is  content 
with  his  notion  of  basket  without  attempting  to  define  it. 

The  moment  one  crosses  the  threshold  of  the  school- 
room he  is  apt  to  forget  his  experience  with  baskets  and 
like  experiences.  To  begin  to  introduce  the  child  to 
generalizations  by  having  him  describe  a  class  of  things  is 
to  engage  in  a  peculiar  mockery.  Occasionally  some  one 
desires  to  introduce  nouns,  punctuation  marks,  spheres. 


104  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

continents,  rectangles,  cubes,  and  many  other  things  in 
this  way.  All  such  should  think  of  their  experience  with 
baskets,  and  occasionally  try  to  form  a  definition  which 
will  include  all  baskets  and  exclude  the  individuals  of  all 
other  classes  of  objects. 

Formation  of  Definition 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  comparison  is  as  essential 
to  the  formation  of  a  definition  as  it  is  to  the  formation 
of  a  generalization.  Consequently  the  formation  of  defini- 
tions can  best  be  perfected  by  permitting  the  pupils  to 
compare  their  own  definitions  and  later,  as  McMurry 
has  pointed  out,  to  compare  their  own  with  that  of  the 
teacher,  and  still  later  with  the  one  given  in  the  book. 
Such  a  comparison  should  enrich  the  definitions  of  the  in- 
dividual members  of  the  class,  and  also  develop  a  self- 
respect  which  seldom  occurs  when  definitions  are  com- 
mitted to  memory. 

Function  of  Definition.  —  Definition  has  an  educational 
advantage  in  that  it  forces  and  intensifies  comparison.- 
When  a  child  sees  that  his  definition  is  different  from  those 
of  the  others,  he  immediately  begins  to  compare  individuals 
for  the  purpose  of  laying  hold  of  the  essential  character- 
istics of  the  class.  Such  an  examination  deepens  percep- 
tion and  purifies  the  generalization. 

Application  of  the  Generalization 

Though  application  is  deductive  in  form  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  the  teaching  process  it  has  an  in- 
ductive purpose  or  function.  That  is,  we  proceed  to  test 
our  generalization  not,  if  you  please,  for  the  purpose  of 
understanding  the  individual,  but  for  the  express  purpose 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON   WAYS  OF  LEARNING       105 

of  finding  out  if  we  have  discovered  the  right  principle. 
One  may  experiment  with  a  balanced  ration  for  chickens 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  yield  of  eggs.  His  first 
experiments  lead  him  to  a  tentative  principle.  He  tries 
it  out  on  other  breeds  of  chickens  and  finds  that  he  must 
modify  it  somewhat.  He  further  experiments  with  the 
modified  ration  until  the  results  are  relatively  stable  and 
consequently  satisfactory.  He  has  established  a  principle. 
His  trials  are  to  insure  the  trustworthiness  of  his  generali- 
zation.    Such  trials  are  inductive  in  purpose. 

Later  on  in  the  season  he  leaves  for  his  vacation.  On 
his  return  he  notes  that  the  egg  yield  is  decidedly  low. 
He  at  once  concludes  that  the  chickens  are  not  being  fed  a 
balanced  ration.  This  problem  is  solved  by  the  mere 
application  of  a  principle  to  an  individual  case.  This 
process  is  deductive  in  purpose. 

In  all  search  for  principles  there  is  of  necessity  a  need 
of  application.  This  testing  out  process  must  be  continued 
longer  in  the  school  than  elsewhere  since  children's  ex- 
periences are  more  limited  than  are  those  of  adults.  They 
are  likely  to  reach  true  generalization  less  easily  than 
adults.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  application 
in  this  sense  is  inductive  in  purpose  tliough  deductive  in  form. 

Application  vs.  Drill.  —  From  what  has  been  said  al- 
ready it  must  seem  evident  that  apphcation  in  the  in- 
ductive process  is  doing  a  thing,  not  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  the  act  to  an  automatism,  but  for  the  purpose 
of  better  understanding  the  principle  that  controls  similar 
situations.  On  the  other  hand,  the  so-called  drill  exercises 
are  not  intended  to  give  a  richer  notion  of  some  controlling 
principle,  but  to  insure  the  same  invariable  response  to  a 
recurring  stimulus. 


Io6  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

For  example,  one  may  group  certain  words  in  the  spelling 
list.  After  a  little  he  notices  in  the  "ei"  words  which  he 
has  before  him  that  in  all  cases  where  "ei"  has  the  sound  of 
long  "a"  the  order  of  the  letters  is  "ei"  as  in  the  word 
freight.  With  this  principle  in  mind  he  examines  other 
words  and  ultimately  concludes  that  this  principle  is  uni- 
versally true.  This  is  a  case  of  appHcation.  If  instead  of 
comparing  these  words  for  signs  of  common  character- 
istics he  repeats  each  word  until  the  letters  are  contigu- 
ously associated  the  process  is  one  of  drill. 

Danger  of  Short-Circuiting  in  Application.  —  Nothing  is 
more  common  or  more  harmful  in  school  than  the  habit 
of  short-circuiting.  For  example,  the  child  in  the  reading 
class  sees  the  printed  word,  and  then  instead  of  imaging 
the  idea  back  of  the  word  before  pronouncing  it,  as  he  does 
in  actual  contact,  he  "cuts  across"  from  the  stimulus  of  the 
written  word  to  the  mechanical  expression  of  the  oral  sym- 
bol, completely  ehminating  the  essential  element  — •  the 
content.  The  same  fault  is  common  in  other  subjects.  A 
teacher  of  physical  geography  was  teaching  a  class  how 
the  direction  of  winds  is  determined  by  a  storm  center.  He 
showed  on  the  board  how  the  winds  blow  when  the  center 
is  at  Philadelphia,  again  when  it  is  at  Boston.  The  pupils 
helped  to  recall  the  "counter  clockwise"  effect  of  winds  and 
with  the  face  of  a  clock  in  mind  they  were  able  to  indicate 
the  direction  on  the  board.  However,  when  one  student 
was  asked  to  represent  a  storm  center  and  move  about 
the  room,  and  the  others  were  asked  to  point  at  full  arm's 
length  the  direction  of  the  wind,  all  but  one  or  two  were 
bafHed.  Much  of  our  so-called  appHcation  is  of  this 
short-circuiting  character.  Excessive  verbal  mastery  of 
lessons,  or  even  the  mere  mastery  of  ideas  without  their 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON   WAYS   OF  LEARNING       1 07 

being  enriched  from  actual  experience,  results  in  bad  habits 
of  short-circuiting. 

Consistent  A  pplication.  —  Application  to  be  consistent 
must  prevent  short-circuiting.  The  individual  situation 
tested  must  be  real  to  the  child's  experience  —  not  a 
"supposed"  situation.  Better  by  far  is  the  problem  which 
requires  the  children  to  find  the  actual  cost  of  papering 
the  sitting-room  in  Willie's  home  which  possibly  is  being 
repaired,  than  to  find  the  cost  of  papering  a  supposed  room 
of  given  dimensions.  Problems  in  fractions  involving  the 
cost  of  the  milk  which  is  consumed  by  the  various  famihes 
represented  in  the  room,  at  the  actual  fractional  cost  per 
pint  or  quart  are  much  superior  to  problems  that  require 
the  cost  of  9  lb.  of  sugar  at  7^  cts.  per  pound,  or  8  bars 
of  soap  at  4I  cts.  per  bar.  AppUcation  to  be  of  most  worth 
must  have  the  ring  of  real  worth. 

II.   Deduction 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  why  methodologists  have  given 
relatively  so  much  consideration  to  inductive  processes 
and  relatively  so  Httle  thought  to  deductive  processes, 
since  most  of  our  values  in  the  after-school  days  are  deter- 
mined by  deductive  procedure.  Nearly  every  problem 
that  confronts  one  from  the  moment  he  arises  in  the  morn- 
ing until  he  retires  in  the  evening  is  solved  by  deductive 
reasoning.  On  discovering  that  it  is  light  in  the  morning 
one  concludes  that  it  is  time  to  get  up.  He  either  im- 
plicitly or  explicitly  proceeds  as  follows :  One  should 
arise  at  day-break.  It  is  now  day-break.  Therefore,  it 
is  time  to  arise.  And  so  on  through  the  day,  he  solves  the 
problems  that  arise  by  holding  them  up  in  the  light  of  some 


Io8  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

accepted  principle  which  he  has  adopted  as  a  standard  for 
determining  individual  values. 

Doubtless  method  in  deductive  thinking  has  been  neg- 
lected because  it  has  been  assumed  that  if  one  understands 
principles  he  will  be  able  to  solve  the  problems  to  which 
they  relate.  There  is  no  greater  fallacy  in  the  field  of 
education  than  this  assumption.  The  development  of 
moot  courts,  internes,  practical  courses  in  the  household 
arts,  training  schools  for  teachers,  experiment  stations 
in  the  field  of  agriculture,  ■ —  all  illustrate  the  fallacy  of  this 
assumption. 

Deductive  thinking  consists  in  controlling  particular 
cases  by  the  application  of  general  principles  to  them.  In 
this  age,  when  we  are  so  sensitive  to  the  importance  of 
conservation  in  every  phase  of  endeavor,  it  is  proper  and 
fitting  that  the  deductive  approach  be  critically  examined. 
Such  an  examination  will  prevent  waste  time  and  energy 
in  the  process  of  obtaining  values  by  deductive  reasoning. 
It  is  important  that  the  procedure  be  natural  and  rational 
in  the  interest  of  economy  of  both  time  and  energy.  In 
order  to  evaluate  deductive  processes  in  terms  of  economy 
of  time  and  energy,  it  is  necessary  to  lay  bare  these  processes 
and  examine  each  in  terms  of  the  child's  interest.  Method- 
ologists  have  made  the  processes  of  induction  explicit  and 
thereby  paved  the  way  for  economy  in  the  inductive  method 
of  teaching.  There  is  an  equally  good  reason  for  making 
the  processes  of  deduction  explicit  and  thereby  providing 
a  consistent  method  of  teaching  deductively. 

Steps  in  Deductive  Thinking      , 

An  inductive  way  of  getting  an  understanding  of  the 
deductive  process  is  through  an  examination  of  all  of  the 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON   WAYS  OF  LEARNING       1 09 

steps  in  that  process.  This  can  be  done  by  exposing  the 
distinct  phases  of  the  process,  and  then  determining  their 
order  and  relative  importance  by  comparison.  The  follow- 
ing process  in  obtaining  a  value  will  illustrate  this  method. 
A  door  bell  which  has  been  in  good  repair  since  it  was  in- 
stalled suddenly  ceases  to  ring.  The  owner  has  thereby 
lost  the  value  afforded  by  the  ringing  of  the  door  bell. 
Up  to  this  time  this  value  was  controlled  by  unconscious 
habit.  As  he  steps  up  to  the  door,  for  the  thousandth 
time,  it  may  be,  the  hand  automatically  presses  the  button. 
Once  the  finger  is  in  its  accustomed  place  the  muscles  con- 
tract but  the  pressure  brings  no  response.  A  second 
pressure  on  the  button  and  —  no  response. 

A  Felt  Difficulty.  —  The  first  conscious  response  to  his 
failure  to  control  this  value  in  the  habitual  way  is  a  felt 
difficulty.  From  the  standpoint  of  method  it  is  essential 
that  one  know  the  factors  involved  in  producing  a  "felt 
difficulty."  It  is  evident  that  the  habitual  way  of  getting 
attention  from  within  has  failed  to  get  the  customary 
response,  and  that  the  customary  response  previously  se- 
cured by  this  habit  is  of  value.  As  the  value  diminishes 
in  importance  a  felt  difficulty  will  diminish  in  like  pro- 
portion. For  example,  one  starts  to  cross  the  street  and 
just  at  that  instant  an  automobile  stops  the  passage. 
Though  the  habit  ceases  to  operate  for  the  moment  there 
is  but  Httle  ''felt  difficulty"  because  the  halt  is  but 
momentary,  and  the  delay  of  little  consequence. 

Examination  of  Data.  —  Curiosity  is  aroused  by  the 
occurrence  of  the  felt  difficulty,  and  hence  a  "tinkering" 
with  the  bell  follows.  In  all  probabihty  this  "tinkering" 
will  consist  in  repeated  pushes  on  the  button,  pounding 
the  bell,  and  tightening  the  screws  and  wires.     In  other 


no  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

words,  this  second  step  consists  in  examining  the  data  most 
directly  and  concretely  related  to  the  conditions  at  hand. 
This  step  is  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  gross  conditions 
involved  in  the  ringing  of  a  door  bell.  It  is  the  step  which 
has  to  do  with  the  examination  of  external  conditions. 

Again  a  general  knowledge  of  the  conditions  which 
determine  this  type  of  control  is  presupposed.  Without 
a  general  understanding  of  the  conditions  there  would  be 
Httle  "tinkering"  after  the  "felt  difficulty"  arose.  The 
disturbed  impulses  would  find  no  definite  outlet. 

Tentative  Hypotheses.  —  If  a  general  famiharity  with 
the  conditions  which  stimulate  the  search  or  examination 
exists,  the  chances  are  that  some  degree  of  knowledge 
relative  to  the  principles  which  control  these  conditions  is 
possessed.  If  such  knowledge  does  not  exist  further  pro- 
cedure will  stop.  If  it  does  exist  the  third  factor  in  the 
mental  process  takes  form  and  is  known  as  a  tentative 
hypothesis.  The  number  and  order  of  such  hypotheses 
will  depend  upon  the  number  and  order  of  the  principles 
which  the  operator  conceives  to  be  involved.  The  follow- 
ing order  of  principles  may  occur  and  thus  give  rise  to  the 
hypotheses  concerning  the  defect  in  the  door  bell :  ist, 
a  certain  electric  potentiaHty  is  necessary  to  ring  the  bell ; 
2d,  a  continuous  connection  between  the  two  poles  of 
the  cell  and  the  posts  of  the  bell  is  indispensable ;  3d,  the 
current  passing  around  the  soft  iron  core  must  be  inter- 
mittent; 4th,  the  spring  provided  to  secure  this  inter- 
mittency  must  be  intact. 

Testing  Hypotheses.  —  As  each  hypothesis  is  investi- 
gated, the  fundamental  law  with  which  it  is  associated  in 
consciousness  is  observed  in  its  essential  ramifications. 
Particular  data  are  examined  to  see  if  the  law  under  con- 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON   WAYS  OF  LEARNING       III 

sideration  is  being  transgressed.  One  after  another  of  the 
occurring  hypotheses  is  tested  out  in  the  light  of  an  as- 
sociated principle  that  is  recalled.  Through  the  process  of 
elimination  the  difficulty  is  located  finally  and  the  condition 
remedied.  This  location  of  the  defective  condition  through 
the  appHcation  of  known  principles  is  testing  the  hypotheses 
and  is  the  fourth  step  in  deductive  thinking. 

Verification.  —  But  no  electrician  would  stop  here. 
After  making  all  of  the  connections,  certainly  he  would 
step  to  the  door  once  more  and  press  the  button  to  see  if  the 
result  of  his  handiwork  is  good.  This  fifth  step  in  deductive 
thinking  is  verification.  It  is  the  final  assurance  that  the 
value  which  was  lost  by  the  break  in  the  control  of  the  bell 
is  restored. 

An  examination  of  this  concrete  and  practical  problem 
reveals  the  fact  that  there  is  a  perfectly  natural  order  in 
the  mastery  of  this  situation ;  and  furthermore  that  there 
is  a  utilization  of  principles  and  a  constant  play  of  ex- 
perience from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  process. 

Detailed  Analysis.  —  In  view  of  making  each  of  these 
steps  exphcit  in  its  bearing  upon  method,  it  is  necessary 
to  isolate  it  and  examine  its  characteristics  more  in  detail. 
As  has  been  observed  already,  two  essential  factors  are 
involved  in  establishing  a  felt  difiiculty.  One  is  a  failure 
to  secure  the  customary  response,  and  the  other  is  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  value  of  such  a  response.  The  first  of  these 
factors  finds  its  physiological  counterpart  in  habit. 

So  long  as  habit  secures  the  value,  one  is  not  disturbed 
and  there  is  no  occasion  for  deductive  thinking.  The 
moment  that  habit  fails  to  secure  the  value  in  the  cus- 
tomary way,  control  is  broken  and  the  deductive  process 
begins.     Consequently    a    fundamental    step    in    method 


112  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

involves  making  the  pupil  aware  that  his  present  control, 
which  heretofore  has  given  satisfaction,  now  fails  to  do  so. 
For  example,  a  pupil  has  not  been  dissatisfied  with  his  writ- 
ing though  it  has  been  quite  mediocre.  An  investigating 
committee  finds  that  it  takes  twice  as  long  to  read  a  page 
of  his  manuscript  as  it  does  to  read  a  page  of  manuscript 
written  by  the  best  writer  in  the  class.  By  this  comparison 
the  poor  writer  is  made  to  realize  for  the  first  time  that  his 
method  of  writing  works  a  hardship  upon  those  to  whom  he 
writes.  Henceforth  his  old  habit  will  cease  to  give  satis- 
faction and  consequently  will  not  possess  value  for  him. 
It  is  evident  that  motivation  begins  at  this  point. 

The  problem  at  hand  must  be  either  associated  with 
some  generic  value  (instinctive  purpose),  or  it  must  be 
related  to  some  specific  aim  or  purpose  which  the  child 
entertains  for  himself.  For  example,  the  first  essentials 
in  motivating  the  problem,  What  does  the  robin  feed 
its  young?  are:  ist,  a  certain  familiarity  with  robins, 
—  where  they  nest,  the  probable  location  of  food,  and  a 
general  notion  as  to  how  this  food  is  secured,  conveyed,  and 
transferred  to  the  young ;  2d,  and  by  far  the  more  funda- 
mental factor  in  motivation,  a  consciousness  of  the  rela- 
tion of  this  information  to  certain  values  entertained  by 
the  child. 

If  no  specific  life  interests  have  been  established,  such 
as  that  of  gardening,  caring  for  birds,  and  protecting  trees, 
it  is  up  to  the  teacher  to  draw  upon  native  values.  In 
this  case  perhaps  she  should  stimulate  the  social  instincts. 
An  appeal  to  the  pride  of  her  pupils  may  bring  success. 
By  making  much  of  the  reports  that  come  in  she  will  soon 
establish  values  in  the  consciousness  of  the  children  that 
will  impel  interest  in  the  means  of  attaining  them.     Doubt- 


TEACHING    BASED   UPON   WAYS   OF   LEARNING        I13 

less  these  values  which  are  inherently  related  to  the  social 
instincts  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  propelHng  force  of 
human  endeavor. 

The  importance  of  the  gathering  of  data  for  the  solution 
of  any  problem  is  manifest  in  the  results  obtained.  Chil- 
dren, as  do  adults,  stumble  more  frequently  at  this  point 
than  at  any  other.  Half-baked  conclusions  are  due  too 
often  to  insufficient  data.  Real  estate  agents,  patent 
m^edicine  men  and  exploiters  of  all  sorts  of  get-rich-quick 
schemes  are  purposely  negligent  in  this  particular.  All 
of  the  essential  data  would  ruin  their  business.  In  fact 
it  is  the  policy  of  those  who  desire  to  force  a  wrong  con- 
clusion to  overemphasize  certain  data  and  to  withhold 
other  data  of  powerful  significance.  Persons  called  before 
the  congressional  committee  which  investigates  campaign 
funds  frequently  have  been  skilled  in  this  particular. 
Pohticians  usually  manifest  a  similar  weakness. 

The  social  stimulus  again  will  aid  much  in  securing  the 
necessary  data.  Comparison  here,  as  in  other  phases  of 
school  work,  should  be  drawn  upon  in  full  measure.  In- 
dividual reports  should  be  encouraged  by  keeping  full  and 
complete  accounts  of  results  and  by  public  mention  of  the 
relative  value  of  such  reports.  Whether  it  be  gleaning 
facts  relative  to  the  robin  feeding  its  young,  or  finding  the 
conditions  of  a  formal  problem  in  arithmetic,  zest  for  the 
work  and  accuracy  of  discrimination  will  be  enhanced  by 
a  large  and  discriminate  selection  of  details. 

A  large  collection  of  data  intended  for  the  solution  of 
a  problem  may  prove  to  be  only  mental  curios.  This 
will  prove  true  in  case  of  a  limited  grasp  of  principles  in- 
volved in  the  solution  of  the  problem.  Tentative  hypotheses, 
though  essential  in  the  solution  of  problems,  depend  in  their 


114  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

initial  stage  upon  a  consciousness  of  underlying  principles. 
Determining  what  is  wrong  with  the  door  bell  by  de- 
ductive thinking  involves  an  understanding  of  the  nature 
of  an  electric  current,  of  good  and  bad  conductors,  of  the 
influence  of  an  electric  current  upon  a  soft  iron  core,  and 
of  the  effect  that  a  magnet  has  upon  a  piece  of  soft  iron. 

Progress  in  this  phase  of  the  procedure  requires  familiarity 
with  the  principles  involved.  Hence  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  deductive  process,  or  perchance  before  the  problem  is 
attempted,  all  principles  involved  should  be  recalled  and 
tentatively  applied.  Some  teachers  act  upon  the  fallacious 
theory  that  a  principle  once  in  the  memory  is  always 
in  the  memory.  A  teacher  was  recently  requiring  a  class 
in  algebra  to  square  polynomials  by  inspection.  The  class 
had  previously  worked  out  the  rule  by  induction,  but  still 
its  application  was  vague  to  them.  Half  the  hour  was 
taken  up  in  "lumbering"  and  "stumbling"  over  the 
problem  assigned.  Ten  minutes  spent  upon  recalling  the 
"rule"  and  in  applying  it  over  and  over  in  specific  cases 
until  the  notion  became  workable  would  have  prevented 
the  difl&culty. 

An  abstract  knowledge  of  principles  alone  will  not  suffice 
to  make  one  constructive.  One  who  solves  a  problem 
intelligently  must  have,  in  addition  to  a  grasp  of  principles, 
the  abihty  to  visualize  a  situation  where  the  principle 
applies.  Not  all  mechanical  engineers  are  inventors.  Not 
all  scholars  are  writers.  Not  all  students  of  mechanics 
are  architects  ;  and  not  all  lovers  of  the  beautiful  are  poets, 
composers  of  music,  or  artists.  They  only  become  so  by 
developing  the  constructive  imagination. 

The  school  should  give  training  in  this  aspect  of  think- 
ing.    More   opportunity   should   be   offered   for   applying 


TEACHING   BASED   UPON  WAYS  OF  LEARNING       115 

principles  to  new  situations.  Arithmetic,  literature,  his- 
tory, geography,  and  most  of  the  other  subjects  are  rich 
in  this  sort  of  opportunity.  There  are  times  when  the 
teacher  should  assign  work  peculiarly  suited  to  develop 
this  phase  of  thinking,  and  allow  time  in  the  recitation 
period  for  consideration  of  worthy  contributions  by  the 
class. 

Testing  the  hypotheses  is  a  significant  factor  in  the 
solution  of  a  problem.  In  other  words,  this  step  consists 
in  making  actually  real  what  has  been  only  theoretically 
real.  In  the  case  of  the  door  bell  it  involves  tightening 
the  wires  at  the  posts,  adjusting  the  automatic  breaker 
until  it  works  freely,  and  testing  the  strength  of  the  current. 
In  the  squaring  of  a  polynomial  it  consists  in  actually  per- 
forming the  operations  suggested  by  the  rule. 

It  is  important  that  these  processes  be  as  skillful  as 
possible.  Speed  and  accuracy  at  this  stage  in  problem 
solving  are  indispensable.  They  are  attainable  only 
through  an  enormous  amount  of  drill.  This  drill  should 
be  Hvely  and  usually  at  regular  periods.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  by  experimentation  that  students  who  have 
been  drilled  upon  the  fundamental  operations  in  arithmetic 
make  higher  grades  on  examinations  involving  thought 
processes  than  do  those  who  have  not  been  so  drilled.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  those  who  are  skilled  in  the  me- 
chanical processes  have  mental  energy  released  for  the 
thought  processes,  which  otherwise  would  be  utilized. 

It  is  relatively  easy  to  build  houses,  span  streams,  elimi- 
nate trusts,  provide  prohibition,  and  irrigate  vast  areas 
of  arid  land  upon  paper.  It  is  more  difficult  to  do  these 
things  in  reality.  The  acid  test  of  the  mastery  of  a  principle 
is  in  its  application.     Verification  in  the  truest  sense  means 


Il6  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

such  an  application.  It  involves  the  application  of  prin- 
ciples to  the  bank  discount  with  which  the  local  bank  has 
to  deal  and  to  the  denominate  numbers  involved  in  the 
household  problems  the  several  children  of  the  class  have 
to  face.  In  its  practical  aspect  verification  means  the 
application  of  the  theories  acquired  to  concrete  situations. 
Teachers  who  are  more  than  imitators,  who  teach  as  they 
do  because  of  a  consciousness  of  the  value  of  principles 
involved,  will  recognize  that  there  is  yet  an  abundant 
opportunity  to  make  verification  explicit.  The  waste 
here  is  just  as  marked  as  in  the  inductive  process.  Practical 
results  are  needed  as  much  here  as  there. 

It  is  not  enough  to  demand  of  pupils  that  they  solve 
problems.  It  is  quite  as  important  that  they  solve  them 
with  as  little  expenditure  of  energy  and  time  as  possible. 
The  problem  should  be  set  so  as  to  arouse  2i  felt  difficulty; 
to  stimulate  a  diligent  examination  of  data;  to  provide 
feasible  tentative  hypotheses ;  to  insure  a  searching  test  of  the 
hypotheses ;  and  to  impel  a  comprehensive  verification  of  the 
dominant  one.  When  all  of  these  steps  have  been  con- 
sidered carefully,  one  may  rest  assured  that  the  problem  is 
solved  satisfactorily. 


CHAPTER   VII 
HABIT  FORMATION 

Scope  of  Habit.  —  The  relative  amount  of  habit  in  the 
performance  of  one's  work,  indeed,  in  the  enjoyment  of 
one's  leisure,  is  greater  than  he  is  apt  to  suspect.  From 
the  moment  one  awakens  in  the  morning  until  he  falls 
asleep  at  night,  he  is  constantly  exercising  this  significant 
form  of  control.  The  major  portion  of  life's  activities  — 
arising,  dressing,  starting  the  fire,  eating,  discussing  the 
incidents  of  daily  life,  walking  to  and  from  the  car,  doing 
the  chores  on  the  farm,  in  fact,  the  hundred-and-one  other 
details  of  office  or  shop  or  farm,  are  mainly  automatisms 
which  require  little  or  no  reflection  or  reflective  guidance 
on  the  part  of  him  who  performs  them. 

With  the  advancement  of  civilization  comes  an  increase 
in  the  complexity  of  the  social  structure.  The  social 
organism  becomes  highly  differentiated  and  specialized,  re- 
quiring delicacy  of  adjustment  on  the  part  of  the  individuals 
who  constitute  it.  Along  broad  fines  the  individual's 
adjustments  to  the  social  organism  of  which  he  is  a  part 
may  be  grouped  into  two  main  classes :  those  which  have 
to  do  with  an  adequate  understanding,  appreciation,  and 
adaptation  of  the  individual  to  the  social  organism  of  which 
he  is  a  part ;  and  those  which  have  to  do  with  the  special 

117 


Il8  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

adaptations  he  must  make  in  the  particular  vocation 
he  has  elected. 

The  second  class  of  adjustments  does  not  necessarily 
require  a  higher  degree  of  skill  than  does  the  first.  The 
particular  acts  of  the  painter,  plumber,  typist,  cabinet- 
maker, weaver,  or  telegrapher  require  no  more  skill  than  is 
required  in  the  art  of  verbal  expression,  in  determining 
numerical  relations,  and  in  conforming  to  the  various  con- 
ventions which  in  general  weld  the  various  parts  of  the 
social  structure  together.  To  assume  that  more  skill  is 
required  to  control  a  paint  brush  than  to  control  the 
"mother  tongue"  adequately;  to  set  type  than  to  prepare 
the  selection  being  set  up;  to  "click  off"  on  a  telegraph 
instrument  the  status  of  the  world's  markets  than  to 
determine  the  changed  condition  of  those  markets,  is 
absurd.  These  two  classes  of  skill  are  different  yet  both 
are  highly  important.  It  is  not  true  that  one  is  inferior  to 
the  other.     Both  are  essential. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the 
relative  importance  of  these  two  classes  of  adjustment. 
It  is  certain  that  the  first  class  should  not  receive  less  con- 
sideration as  society  becomes  more  highly  differentiated. 
With  the  breaking  down  of  the  apprentice  system,  the 
curtaiHng  of  the  responsibilities  of  the  home,  the  awaken- 
ing consciousness  of  the  fact  that  adjustments  of  the  first 
class  aid  the  professions  more  than  they  aid  the  trades, 
there  is  a  growing  conviction  that  the  school  is  not  giv- 
ing sufficient  consideration  to  preparation  for  the  trades. 
It  is  pretty  certain,  however,  that  the  public  school  will 
always  give  first  consideration  to  the  establishment  of  the 
controls  which  underHe  the  broader  social  adjustments. 
It  will  insist  upon  a  basic  general  education  to  safeguard 


HABIT   FORMATION  I19 

the  whole  of  society  before  it  provides  training  in  vocational 
skill.  Doubtless  there  should  be  training  for  both  forms  of 
preparation  at  the  same  time. 

Relation  of  Habits  to  Efficiency 

Correct  Habits  Conserve  Energy.  —  In  a  discussion  on 
a  method  of  teaching  one  is  more  concerned  in  the  relation 
of  habit  to  efficiency  than  he  is  in  the  general  character- 
istics of  habit.  The  conservation  of  energy  is  a  vital  factor 
in  efficiency.  In  all  activities  in  which  habit  has  not  be- 
come specific,  energy  lacks  definite  control  and  positive 
guidance,  and  consequently  is  subject  to  great  waste. 
One  who  is  not  skilled  in  threading  a  needle  will  utilize 
excessive  energy  in  performing  the  task.  Skating,  dancing, 
horseback  riding,  controUing  and  directing  a  new  machine, 
playing  a  new  game,  in  fact  performing  any  new  and  un- 
familiar activity  exhausts  the  novice,  while  one  skilled  in 
the  performances  of  these  acts  will  experience  little  or  no 
fatigue. 

Correct  Habits  Release  Energy.  —  Not  only  do  adequate 
habits  reduce  the  useless  expenditure  of  energy  but  they 
release  and  thereby  allow  of  a  redistribution  and  concen- 
tration of  energy  at  the  most  strategic  points.  If  one  is 
riding  a  bicycle  for  the  first  time  it  is  probable  that  his 
mental  energy  is  so  consumed  in  controlling  the  front  wheel 
in  order  to  maintain  an  upright  position  that  he  has  httle 
or  no  energy  left  to  reflect  upon  how  to  dodge  the  hole  in 
the  road  which  he  suddenly  approaches.  One  who  has 
reduced  the  upright  control  of  a  bicycle  to  habit  will  have 
all  of  his  energy  free  to  reflect  upon  the  various  possible 
ways  of  dodging  the  hole  mentioned. 

One  dancing  or  skating  for  the  first  time  will  find  him- 


I20  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

self  possessed  with  little  brilliancy  of  thought  and  unable 
to  hold  his  own  in  the  conversation  indulged  in  by  his 
skilled  companion.  Neither  will  one  driving  an  auto- 
mobile for  the  first  time  be  entertaining  to  his  companion, 
as  many  an  unfortunate  victim  of  such  an  experience  can 
testify.  After  specific  habits  have  been  formed  to  control 
these  new  situations,  mental  energy  will  be  released  and 
coherent  conversations  may  be  carried  on. 

One  who  in  childhood  learned  habits  of  speech  which 
transgress  all  of  the  laws  of  the  "King's  English"  finds 
much  of  his  mental  energy  consumed  in  the  mere  form  of 
expression,  which  should  be  used  in  rounding  out  and 
perfecting  the  thoughts  themselves.  Only  when  one  has 
reduced  his  language  to  an  automatism  is  he  able  to  draw 
upon  all  of  his  reserve  energy  in  exposing  his  convictions 
to  others.  In  like  manner  one  cannot  express  his  ideas 
effectively  in  written  form  if  he  is  constantly  in  doubt  as 
to  the  sort  of  punctuation  he  should  use,  or  the  spelling 
he  should  employ.  One  cannot  make  great  headway  in 
mathematical  computations  if  he  is  constantly  harassed 
with  inaccuracies  in  the  use  of  the  fundamental  processes. 
Inefficiency  in  all  of  these  lines  of  endeavor  is  conditioned 
by  the  consumption  of  energy  that  is  drawn  off  to  conivol 
physical  processes  which  should  be  reduced  to  habit. 

Teachers  who  fail  to  estabHsh  the  fundamental  habits 
upon  which  the  larger  thought  processes  depend  for  ex- 
pression are  unconsciously  but  surely  responsible  for  the 
life  bondage  which  they  unwittingly  impose  upon  the  chil- 
dren, through  failure  to  organize  their  native  impulses  into 
definite  socially  serviceable  reactions. 

Correct  Habits  Make  for  Uniformity  and  Consistency.  — 
One  who  has  reduced  writing  to  a  habit  may  be  depended 


HABIT  FORMATION  121 

upon  to  reproduce  consistently  the  same  form  with  which 
he  begins.  The  truth  of  this  statement  is  supported  by 
the  practices  of  banks  and  courts  in  determining  the  au- 
thenticity of  handwriting.  One  who  has  reduced  speUing 
to  an  automatism  will  be  consistent  and  uniform  in  his 
spelling,  though  he  may  not  always  produce  conventional 
results.  A  dependable  person  is  one  who  has  reduced  the 
fundamental  virtues  to  habit.  When  one  is  punctual, 
honest,  industrious,  loyal,  and  self-sacrificing  through 
habit,  rather  than  through  sheer  will  power,  his  dependa- 
bility is  a  certainty. 

Habits  the  School  Should  Establish.  —  As  has  been  pointed 
out,  the  first  responsibility  of  the  school  is  to  initiate  the 
child  into  those  branches  of  knowledge  which  are  especially 
qualified  to  adjust  him  to  his  complex  social  environment. 
Most  of  the  subjects  of  the  elementary  curriculum  are 
for  this  purpose.  They  have  persisted  because  of  their 
broad  cultural  value.  These  subjects  depend  upon  a  rela- 
tively few  fundamental  factors.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
school  to  search  out  and  habituate  these,  that  mental  energy 
may  be  released  for  the  thought  processes  required  of  each 
pupil. 

The  mechanics  of  reading,  pronunciation,  articulation,  the 
massing  of  words,  and  the  relative  emphasis  of  phrases  and 
clauses  in  the  sentence,  and  the  searching  for  difficult  words 
in  advance  of  oral  reading,  are  essential  and  fundamental 
processes  which  should  be  habituated  if  the  mispronuncia- 
tion of  simple  words,  repetitions,  substitutions,  and  omis- 
sions are  to  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  fundamentals  of  language  should  receive  like  at- 
tention. The  person,  gender,  number,  and  case  of  nouns 
and  pronouns ;    the    tense,  mode,  and    number  of  verbs 


122  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

and  the  degrees  of  adjectives  are  some  of  the  essentials 
that  are  needed  daily,  and  consequently  should  be  under- 
stood and  made  automatic. 

The  fundamentals  in  arithmetic  should  receive  similar 
treatment.  Notation  and  numeration ;  the  four  funda- 
mental processes  of  addition,  subtraction,  multipUcation, 
and  division,  with  the  mechanical  devices  best  suited  to 
give  them  expression ;  the  tables  in  denominate  numbers ; 
and  methods  of  attacking  problems  in  percentage  and 
mensuration  are  a  few  of  the  operations  in  arithmetic  that 
should  be  drilled  and  drilled  until  proper  habits  are  formed. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  fundamentals  in  other  sub- 
jects are  not  more  highly  differentiated  than  they  are. 
Investigations  are  revealing  some  of  these.  Others  will 
follow.  In  geography  we  know  that  direction,  prevailing 
currents  of  both  air  and  water,  elevations,  great  trade 
routes,  great  commercial  centers,  the  relation  of  industries 
to  their  environment,  the  relation  of  climatic  conditions 
to  the  industries  and  to  civilization  are  such  fundamental 
factors  that  they  should  be  reduced  to  automatic  control.   • 

The  phases  of  school  work  which  are  intended  to  give 
specific  vocational  training  are  rich  in  processes  which 
should  be  reduced  to  habit.  Stenography  and  typewriting 
in  our  commercial  courses  are  examples.  The  typist  who 
is  prepared  to  demand  a  good  position  in  the  business  world 
will  have  reduced  all  of  the  movements  on  the  keyboard 
of  her  machine  to  habit.  Her  automatic  nerve  centers  must 
swing  her  fingers  up  and  down  the  keyboard  with  absolute 
certainty  while  she  unravels  the  thought  processes  she  is 
to  express  in  type.  As  the  school  undertakes  more  and 
more  training  of  a  strictly  vocational  character  its  re- 
sponsibility in  habit  formation  will  increase. 


HABIT   FORMATION  1 23 

Much  of  the  poor  work  that  is  done  in  the  teaching  of 
fundamental  habits  is  due  to  a  few  very  definite  causes : 
inability  to  appreciate  the  value  of  good  habits,  insufficient 
knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  which  should  be  habituated, 
lack  of  consistency  and  persistency  of  purpose  in  estab- 
lishing these  habits,  and  lastly,  unfamiharity  with  ef- 
fective methods  of  establishing  habits.  From  the  view- 
point of  method  the  last  point  is  most  significant. 

Method  in  Habit  Formation.  —  It  were  futile  to  point 
out  the  things  that  should  be  done  and  leave  unsettled 
the  way  best  fitted  to  do  them.  Ninety  and  nine  are  wont 
to  point  to  the  goal  that  should  be  attained  to  one  who 
comes  forward  mth  a  practical  way  of  attaining  it.  This 
is  as  true  in  method  as  it  is  true  in  religion,  ethics,  politics, 
and  in  other  forms  of  endeavor.  It  is  passing  strange, 
however,  that  relatively  many  point  out  suitable  ends  of 
attainment  to  the  relatively  few  who  master  the  means  of 
attaining  these  ends. 

The  ninety  and  nine  referred  to  in  the  above  paragraph 
have  not  determined  the  particular  topic  at  hand.  Fortu- 
nately for  the  practitioner  there  is  an  abundance  of  definite 
method  available  for  his  guidance  in  the  teaching  of  habits. 
And  while  we  do  not  hope  to  add  to,  or  make  more  ex- 
plicit, what  has  been  presented  already  by  others,  it  is 
hoped  that  a  discussion  of  the  various  steps  in  the  process, 
with  illustrations  drawn  from  experience,  may  be  helpful 
to  those  who  have  had  limited  training  in  this  field. 

First  Step  in  Teaching  Habits.  —  Since  habit  formation 
involves  a  succession  of  definite  acts,  it  is  important  that 
he  who  performs  a  series  of  acts  understand  the  thing  to  be 
done  sufficiently  well  that  the  successive  acts  be  con- 
sistent.    Inconsistency  in   habit   formation,  as  in   ethics, 


124  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   (K)01)   TEACHING 

through  neutrahzing  the  effect  tends  to  maintain  the  zero 
point.  Therefore,  in  this  process  a  clear  understanding 
and  frequently  a  clear  demonstration  of  the  habit  to  be 
attained  is  the  first  prerequisite.  As  Rowe  points  out,  the 
first  step  in  applying  the  recipe  for  "rabbit  stew"  is  to 
''catch  your  rabbit."  The  first  step  in  habit  formation 
is  to  determine  the  habit  to  be  formed.  Demonstration  is 
usually  the  best  way  of  getting  this  phase  of  the  process 
consciously  before  the  children. 

If  children  go  down  the  steps  noisily,  it  is  plainly  the 
business  of  the  teacher  to  demonstrate,  or  have  some  pupil 
demonstrate,  a  quiet  and  easy  way  of  descending  the 
stairs.  If  the  seat  positions  are  generally  bad  there  should 
be  a  demonstration  of  good  positions.  If  high-school 
students  walk  heavily  over  the  floor,  a  demonstration  of  a 
quiet  way  of  walking,  by  both  teacher  and  pupils,  should 
be  made  after  attention  has  been  called  to  the  noisy  walking 
in  vogue.  If  the  voices  of  the  children  in  the  reading 
exercises  are  pitched  too  high  or  too  low,  the  proper  pitch 
should  be  presented  to  them.  If  the  handwriting  is  of 
bad  form,  the  folding  of  paper  poorly  done,  or  what  you 
will,  in  the  interest  of  conservation  the  right  form  should 
be  contrasted  with  the  wrong  form  that  responsibility  may 
be  placed  where  it  belongs,  not  with  the  decided  purpose 
of  placing  responsibihty,  but,  as  Bagley  points  out,  for  the 
purpose  of  "focalizing  the  attention  upon  the  thing  to  be 
done."  ' 

Though  this  first  step  often  lacks  definiteness  and  de- 
tail and  though  there  is  often  an  insufficient  amount  of 
comparison  to  insure  a  definite  notion,  in  the  main  it  can 
be  said  that  society  has  always  been  relatively  long  on  this 

^  Educative  Process,  Bagley. 


HABIT   FORMATION  1 25 

phase  of  the  process.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  words  of 
Portia:  "I  can  easier  teach  twenty  what  were  good  to 
be  done  than  be  one  of  the  twenty  to  follow  mine  own 
teaching."  ^  Indeed,  it  is  traditional  that  mankind  is 
inchned  to  be  more  interested  in  what  ought  to  be  done  than 
in  the  specific  ways  of  its  accomplishment. 

Second  Step  in  Teaching  Habit.  —  Once  the  thing  to  be 
done  is  clearly  understood,  the  biggest  problem  of  habit 
formation  confronts  the  teacher ;  namely,  the  launching  of 
as  strong  and  decided  an  initiative  as  possible,^  a  deduc- 
tion which  James  made  from  Bain's  treatment  of  "The 
Moral  Habits."  To  throw  the  self  into  the  undertaking 
with  all  the  power  one  can  summon  is  essential  to  an  ac- 
complishment. Again  we  know  what  ought  to  be  done  but 
just  what  stimuh  to  control  and  how  to  control  them  are 
the  problems  that  perplex  the  beginner  when  he  finds 
himself  high  and  dry  upon  the  shore  line  of  failure,  after 
the  first  wave  of  mere  curiosity  has  spent  its  force. 

It  is  in  this  second  step  in  the  process  that  the  "born 
teacher"  shines.  In  fact  the  possession  of  this  power 
usually  wins  for  its  possessor  the  enviable  title  of  "a 
born  teacher."  Doubtless  such  teachers  have  been  able 
to  analyze  their  own  motives  and  those  of  their  children 
more  easily  than  have  the  less  efficient  in  the  profession, 
and  to  put  into  practical  operation  the  generalizations 
thus  obtained.  And  while  all  great  teachers  doubtless 
possess  the  innate  capacity  to  grasp  and  apply  this  vital 
principle,  it  does  not  follow  in  any  sense  that  this  control 
cannot  be  acquired  by  those  who  possess  less  training  and 
natural  ability  ;  nor  does  it  follow  that  the  so-called  "born 
teachers"  cannot  be  improved  by  systematic  training  in 

'  The  Merchant,  of  Venice,  Shakespeare,  ^  Psychology,  James. 


126  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

this  field.  The  fact  is  that  experience  justifies  the  opposite 
conclusion. 

Back  of  this  strong  and  decided  initiative  is  an  emotional 
matrix  that  is  the  key  to  the  situation.  The  great  leaders 
of  all  ages  have  understood  this  impulse  to  action  and  they 
have  known  how  to  stimulate  it  effectively.  Feeling  is 
the  essence  of  the  impulse  to  action  ;  and  he  who  can  stimu- 
late it  systematically  and  consistently,  and  properly  associate 
it  with  the  desired  action,  will  have  little  trouble  in  secur- 
ing cooperation  in  any  enterprise  that  he  sees  fit  to  under- 
take. 

The  teacher's  problem  is  a  practical  one.  How  can  one 
systematically  and  consistently  stimulate  children  so  as  to 
arouse  this  emotional  response?  With  most  teachers  who 
are  successful  this  process  is  impHcit.  They  know  that 
they  do  it,  but  they  have  never  carefully  analyzed  the 
process  into  its  several  steps.  They  are  masters  of  the  art, 
but  they  are  unable  to  guide  their  pupils  to  a  mastery 
of  the  same  art.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  supervision  of 
teaching  will  break  down  unless  the  how  can  be  discovered 
and  passed  along  to  the  one  being  supervised.  Many  an 
excellent  teacher  is  of  Httle  value  as  a  supervisor  because 
he  is  unable  to  reduce  his  art  to  the  fundamental  principles 
which  underlie  it. 

This  emotional  background  is  undoubtedly  the  great 
source  of  racial  and  personal  values.  The  former  is  ordi- 
narily attained  through  instinctive  functioning,  and  the 
latter  is  secured  by  the  emotional  attitudes  that  have  been 
engendered  through  personal  and  racial  experience.  The 
teacher  who  is  to  determine  the  destiny  of  the  children 
whom  she  teaches  must  harken  back  to  these  fountain 
heads  for  inspiration  and  propelling  impulse. 


HABIT  FORMATION  1 27 

The  value  of  the  instincts  in  this  phase  of  method  is 
enormous.  On  entering  school  the  child  has  few  conscious 
values,  growing  out  of  experience,  that  he  wishes  to  con- 
trol. He  is  brimful  of  curiosity,  pride,  and  pugnacity. 
These  three  instincts  alone  furnish  an  equipment  for 
wonderful  results.  The  first  holds  the  attention  fast 
to  the  folk-tales  presented  in  the  primary  grades,  when 
handled  skillfully  by  the  teacher.  Curiosity  must  be  ap- 
pealed to.  Concreteness  is  an  essential  in  stimulating  it. 
The  illustrations  of  present-day  readers  are  excellent  in 
this  connection.  Some  of  the  child's  experiences  relevant 
to  the  incidents  of  the  story  should  be  recalled.  Illus- 
trative drawings  upon  paper  and  upon  the  board  by  the 
children  will  add  to  their  quota  of  interest.  Modeling  in 
clay  will  aid  the  constructive  imagination  while  the  intona- 
tion of  the  teacher's  voice,  facial  expressions,  expressed 
anxiety,  all  tend  to  stimulate  this  instinct  until  a  high  degree 
of  enthusiasm  is  aroused. 

While  this  many-sided  appeal  to  the  child's  curiosity  is 
usually  sufficient  to  maintain  a  high  degree  of  attention  in 
the  story,  it  will  take  more  than  this  to  keep  up  the  interest 
until  new  words  are  learned,  new  accents  mastered,  and  a 
freedom  of  movement  is  attained.  At  this  point  the  teacher 
should  draw  upon  the  spirit  of  emulation.  The  pride  and 
pugnacity  of  the  child  should  be  appealed  to.  It  is  these 
instincts  that  generate  a  flood  of  enthusiasm  upon  the 
playground  and  upon  the  athletic  field.  They  produce 
skill  in  shooting,  riding,  and  swimming ;  in  baseball,  tennis, 
and  basket  ball ;  in  bilHards,  tenpins,  and  golf.  They  are 
frequently  the  power  back  of  social  organizations,  business 
enterprises,  and  combinations  in  trade  and  politics.  They 
ramify  and  stimulate  our  whole  social  structure  from  the 


128  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

simple  games  in  the  nursery  to  the  great  maneuvers  upon 
the  board  of  trade. 

The  teacher  should  draw  upon  these  instincts  wisely 
and  continuously  in  those  phases  of  work  which  in  the  be- 
ginning are  not  interesting.  Spelling,  writing,  and  pro- 
nunciation may  be  interesting  to  the  children  of  the  gram- 
mar grades  and  to  secondary  students  because  they  are 
capable  of  recognizing  the  relation  of  these  things  to  the 
ends  they  have  set  up  for  themselves  to  accomplish.  Not 
so  with  small  children.  The  intrinsic  value  makes  little 
appeal  to  them.  The  social  instincts  can  always  be  relied 
upon  to  make  a  direct  appeal.  And  while  one  should  be 
judicious  in  the  stimulation  of  these  instincts  he  need  not 
be  so  conservative  as  the  puritanic  school  of  educators  is 
accustomed  to  advise.  An  appeal  to  one's  own  experience 
is  sufficient  to  substantiate  this  statement. 

With  the  growth  in  the  experience  and  maturity  of  the 
child  there  should  be  consistent  shifting  of  emphasis  from 
these  instinctive  values  to  those  growing  out  of  experience. 
Neither  value  will  long  be  absent  from  the  child's  con- 
sciousness. It  is  a  question  of  relative  emphasis  that  the 
teacher  must  take  into  account.  If  the  proper  emphasis 
is  placed  upon  these  values,  the  time  should  come  soon 
when  the  child  is  anxious  to  master  the  processes  of  arith- 
metic because  they  will  give  him  quantitative  control  of 
some  value  which  he  has  set  up  to  secure.  Because  of  his 
liking  for  spelling,  history,  physiology,  or  other  subjects, 
he  sees  that  these  subjects  relate  directly  to  the  thing  he 
wishes  to  accomplish. 

One  test  of  good  teaching  is  the  character  of  the  motive 
that  prompts  the  act.  This  is  just  as  true  in  the  method  of 
habit  forming  as  it  is  true  in  the  mastery  of  inductive  and 


HABIT   FORMATION  129 

deductive  controls.  Ultimately  the  student  should  be 
interested  in  improving  his  writing  for  the  social  service 
it  will  render  him.  His  interest  in  perfecting  the  funda- 
mentals in  arithmetic,  a  good  form  in  language,  the  re- 
tention of  the  salient  facts  of  history,  should  ultimately 
be  coupled  with  the  intrinsic  and  specific  values  of  these 
subjects. 

If  the  teacher  wants  to  arouse  a  maximum  emotional 
response  for  the  drill  work  undertaken,  in  the  first  place  he 
will  bring  into  the  child's  consciousness  the  significance  of 
the  habit  to  be  estabhshed.  To  this  end  life  aims  must 
be  built  up  and  associated  with  the  proposed  habits.  In 
the  second  place  he  will  stimulate  the  social  instincts  to 
supplement  the  motive  generated  by  these  life  aims. 

In  geography  one  can  interest  pupils  in  the  location 
and  boundaries  of  political  and  physiographical  divisions, 
in  the  location  and  the  population  of  cities,  and  in  the 
distribution  of  products  and  industries,  by  showing  that 
this  information  will  materially  aid  them  in  interpreting  the 
articles  they  read  in  papers  and  magazines  on  travel,  and 
especially  on  industrial  pursuits.  As  maturity  increases, 
and  a  personal  sense  of  social  obligations  is  more  clearly 
understood,  the  teacher  may  increase  the  emphasis  upon 
this  appeal.  Because  it  is  the  main  appeal  of  maturity, 
it  should  not  be  neglected  in  guiding  the  child's  activity. 

Third  Step  in  Teaching  Habit.  —  One  may  be  momen- 
tarily interested  in  the  formation  of  some  fundamental 
habit  and  yet  not  have  the  stamina  or  strength  of  character 
to  hold  fast  to  the  purpose  he  has  set  out  to  attain  until 
he  accomplishes  it.  Consistency  of  purpose  is  a  necessity 
in  the  establishment  of  habits.  Impulsiveness,  change- 
ableness,  and  fluctuating  enthusiasm  will  frequently  need 


130  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

to  be  overcome  in  the  fight  for  automatic  control.  One 
thing  is  certain,  and  that  is  that  there  must  be  no  "back- 
ing down,"  no  "letting  up,"  until  the  habit  is  formed. 

Many  teachers  of  magnetic  personaUty  who  understand 
how  to  arouse  appropriate  emotional  responses  fail  in  the 
formation  of  fundamental  habits  because  they  do  not 
realize  that  permanent  habits  are  extremely  hard  to  form, 
and  that  they  are  formed  only  after  persistent  and  constant 
repetition. 

Repetition  is  the  watchword.  Not  mere  repetition,  but 
repetition  saturated  with  enthusiasm  and  differentiated 
at  critical  points  by  sharp  discrimination.  Repetition  in 
concert  is  ineffective  as  a  device  in  habit  formation  because 
the  cognitive  factor  is  in  the  background.  In  learning  to 
count,  a  child  will  say  over  and  over  again  ii,  12,  and  15, 
unless  his  teacher  estabhshes  an  association  with  12  which 
will  force  13  instead  of  15  into  his  consciousness.  Dis- 
crimination is  essential  to  patch  up  the  little  defects  in  the 
habit.  Memory  gems  are  too  frequently  taught  by  the 
concert  method.  Since  the  rhyme  is  learned  easily,  the 
teacher  draws  a  wrong  conclusion  as  to  the  value  of  concert 
work  in  the  teaching  of  habit. 

School  administration  offers  a  very  serious  drawback 
to  the  formation  of  adequate  habits,  in  that  it  interferes 
with  the  proper  amount  of  repetition.  Teachers  usually 
cut  the  course  of  study  into  eight  sections.  The  teacher 
of  each  grade  feels  responsible  for  everything  assigned  to 
her.  From  the  standpoint  of  knowledge  this  can  be  cared 
for  easily ;  from  the  standpoint  of  habit,  never.  Teachers 
who  are  conscious  of  the  significance  of  repetition  in  the 
process  of  establishing  habits  will  never  assume  that  the 
drill  work  done  in  the  preceding  grades  is  adequate.     It 


HABIT   FORMATION  131 

makes  no  difference  how  well  it  was  done,  it  needs  to  be  checked 
and  tested  at  intervals  to  insure  permanent  results. 

Teachers  in  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades  should 
interview  the  former  teachers  of  their  children  in  order  to 
determine  more  clearly  their  essential  needs.  Teachers 
should  familiarize  themselves  also  with  the  course  of  study 
to  the  extent  of  selecting  the  fundamental  drill  exercises 
involved,  that  nothing  which  ought  to  be  done  will  be 
neglected. 

We  have  experienced  much  of  the  cyclic  presentation 
of  subject-matter,  and  while  a  moderate  use  of  it  is  justified 
by  good  pedagogy  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  fewer 
cycles  will  be  needed  if  administrators  see  to  it  that  the 
fundamental  skills  be  accumulative  in  character  by  passing 
them  on  to  successive  teachers.  In  a  way  this  is  still  largely 
an  implicit  responsibility.  Never  will  the  child  come  into 
his  own  until  it  has  become  explicit  in  administrative  and 
professional  circles.  Some  one  will  say  that  the  over- 
crowded curriculum  precludes  the  possibility  of  carrying 
out  such  a  visionary  scheme.  Not  infrequently  sub- 
normahty  with  its  accompanying  slow  rate  of  classroom 
work  is  due  to  failure  in  the  fundamental  habits.  Stu- 
dents with  good  memories  (so-called)  usually  rank  high 
in  class  work  and  make  advancement  easily.  If  one 
through  proper  systemization  and  cooperation  can  make  all 
the  children's  memories  relatively  good,  he  will  have  more 
time  for  supplementary  work. 

Attentive  repetition  is  a  responsibihty  that  rests  not  only 
upon  the  work  of  the  particular  classroom  and  the  par- 
ticular teacher,  but  upon  supervising  officers  and  those  who 
are  responsible  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  course  of  study. 
Frequent  visitations  of  grade  teachers  to  rooms  above  and 


132  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

below  their  own,  conferences  by  supervisors  relative  to  the 
extent  of  carrying  this  work  on  from  grade  to  grade,  to 
detect  if  any  teacher  or  group  of  teachers  is  neglecting 
this  responsibility,  will  make  for  better  conditions  than  one 
is  likely  to  realize  through  unsystematic  effort. 

Fourth  Step  in  Teaching  Habit.  —  The  oft-quoted  re- 
mark of  the  immortal  Rip  that  he  would  not  count  this  one 
[drink]  has  a  positive  significance  in  the  establishment  of 
habits.  As  Professor  James  pointed  out,  "He  may  not 
count  it,  and  a  kind  Heaven  may  not  count  it ;  but  it  is 
being  counted  none  the  less.  Down  among  his  nerve  cells 
and  fibers  the  molecules  are  counting  it,  registering  and 
storing  it  up  to  be  used  against  him  when  the  next  tempta- 
tion arises."  ^  It  is  the  exceptions,  either  by  consent  or 
habit,  which  open  the  floodgates  of  the  impulses,  permitting 
them  to  flow  down  the  old  habit  path  only  to  make  resist- 
ance to  the  new  order  greater  than  ever. 

Once  a  movement  is  on  foot  to  break  up  a  bad  habit  by 
the  substitution  of  a  new  one,  after  the  foregoing  steps  have 
been  taken,  the  teacher  must  be  eternally  vigilant  to  the  end 
that  no  exceptions  occur.  Frequently  teachers  set  out 
to  secure  better  positions,  better  grammatical  form,  better 
articulation  and  pronunciation,  better  writing,  and  many 
other  things,  but  soon  fail  to  maintain  a  persistent  un- 
swerving front,  with  the  result  that  little  or  nothing  is 
accomplished. 

At  first  there  is  frequently  an  abundance  of  enthusiasm 
and  everything  goes  on  well.  Then  unexpected  troubles 
begin.  The  most  obstinate  boy  in  the  class,  apparently 
by  mistake,  neglects  to  do  the  thing  required.  The  teacher 
tries  to  justify  this  lack  of  duty  on  various  grounds.  Soon 
^  Psychology,  James. 


HAHII"    FOKM.VI'ION'  133 

others  do  likewise  until  the  attempted  reform  has  passed 
into  ''ancient"  history  and  the  children  are  more  deeply 
rooted  in  the  wrong  habit  than  before  the  reform  was 
attempted. 

More  success  in  this  sort  of  endeavor  will  be  attained 
if  relatively  few  difficult  things  are  attempted  at  one  time 
and  if  those  few  things  are  held  to  tenaciously  until  the 
victory  is  won.  If  rightly  won,  it  will  be  enjoyed  by  stu- 
dents and  teacher  alike.  We  must  insist  that  it  will  never 
be  economically  done  until  the  student  does  enjoy  the  new 
skill  he  possesses. 

The  four  steps  enumerated  above  —  the  first  by  Bagley, 
the  second  and  third  which  are  deductions  from  Bain  by 
Professor  James,  and  the  last  by  James  —  should  be  made 
explicit  by  teachers  who  are  really  concerned  in  teaching 
habits  economically.  Teaching  fundamentals  are  no  less 
subject  to  fundamental  laws  than  are  the  other  endeavors 
of  man.  It  is  only  by  a  scientific  application  of  these  laws 
that  fundamental  skills  can  be  taught  most  economically. 


CIL\PTER   VIII 
THE  EMOTIONAL  FACTOR  IN  TEACHING 

Emotional  Aspects  of  the  Self.  —  Rational  and  automatic 
controls  have  been  treated  as  if  each  were  a  distinct  and 
separate  faculty  functioning  independently  in  the  control 
of  human  affairs.  In  reality  nothing  is  farther  from  the 
truth.  They  are  but  two  aspects  or  manifestations  of  the 
many-sided  self  in  its  attempt  to  come  in  contact  with 
and  to  control  its  environment.  Each  has  been  treated 
separately  to  insure  a  greater  degree  of  simplicity  and  clear- 
ness. In  Hke  manner  and  for  the  same  purpose,  the  emo- 
tional aspect  of  the  self  is  to  receive  separate  and  isolated 
treatment  here. 

The  emotions  are  a  potent  factor  in  the  stimulation  and 
direction  of  one's  thoughts  and  actions.  Emotional  inertia 
is  coexistent  with  intellectual  and  motor  inertia,  and  vice 
versa.  A  great  crisis  like  the  World  War  stirs  the  emo- 
tions, which  in  turn  whip  the  intellect  and  will  into  a  state 
of  amazing  virility.  Mob  psychology  and  business  acumen, 
alike  in  the  last  analysis,  reveal  a  dominant  emotional  factor. 

Interest 

Though  interest  is  a  common  phase  of  the  emotional 
factor  of  method,  from  the  standpoint  of  both  terminology 
and  content,  there  is  an  abundance  of  evidence  to  warrant 

134 


THE   EMOTIONAL   FACTOR   IN  TEACHING  135 

the  conclusion  that  its  meaning  is  not  always  explicit 
even  to  many  who  use  the  term  fluently.  This  is  due  in 
no  small  measure  to  an  overlapping  terminology  both  in 
pedagogical  literature  and  in  common  parlance.  It  has 
been  due  also  to  a  wilKngness  on  the  part  of  educational 
writers  to  employ  a  traditional  technique  somewhat  re- 
mote from  common  usage.  Common  usage  is  necessarily 
most  easily  understood  and  consequently  is  the  most  effec- 
tive terminology  one  can  employ,  provided  the  content  is 
definite  and  explicit. 

Simple  Interest.  —  "Isn't  it  interesting?"  and  "wasn't 
it  interesting?"  are  very  familiar  questions.  These  re- 
marks are  interesting  in  this  connection  because  they 
afford  an  opportunity  to  lay  bare  the  meaning  of  the  interest 
referred  to.  "Interesting"  as  here  used  means  possessing 
the  quahty  which  stimulates  curiosity  with  its  accompany- 
ing feelings  and  arouses  a  sense  of  the  unusual,  the  familiar, 
or  the  new.  An  interesting  thing  possesses  qualities  which 
in  themselves  give  satisfaction  because  they  arouse  an  in- 
stinctive reaction,  either  emotional  or  intellectual,  or  both. 

A  stranger  in  the  community,  the  first  airplane,  a 
large  pumpkin,  situations  in  contrast,  new  clothes,  the  re- 
turn of  an  old  friend,  and  an  exhibit  of  superior  products 
are  examples  of  situations  which  interest  one  because  they 
make  the  instinctive  appeal  referred  to  above. 

Twofold  Aspect  of  Simple  Interest 

In  simple  interest  two  factors  are  involved,  namely,  the 
unpurposive  self  and  the  situation  which  stimulates  the 
instinctive  response.  The  self  in  the  case  of  simple  interest 
has  no  "axe  to  grind."  It  is  unconscious  of  a  purpose  to 
be  fulfilled  or  an  end  to  be  attained.     It  simply  is  yielding 


136  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

to  the  stimuli  of  its  immediate  environment  because  of  the 
satisfaction  they  give.  The  attention  manifestly  is  spon- 
taneous. The  emotional  element  which  sustains  this  attention 
is  simple  interest. 

A  Biological  Background.  —  Simple  interest  is  therefore 
instinctive  in  origin.  The  child  comes  into  the  world  with 
many  ready-made  reactions  to  stimuli,  the  function  of 
which  is  to  generate  this  form  of  interest.  Only  two 
conditions  are  required  to  produce  simple  interest,  ap- 
propriate stimuli  and  a  normal  condition  of  the  instincts 
with  which  to  respond  to  these  stimuli. 

The  incUnation  of  children  to  discover,  to  investigate,  to 
know,  to  understand,  to  play,  to  enjoy  stories,  and  to 
appreciate  the  new  or  the  unusual  is  a  manifestation  of 
the  normal  functioning  of  the  most  fundamental  of  the 
human  instincts. 

Suitable  Stimuli.  —  The  responsibihty  of  the  one  who 
would  direct  the  unfolding  life  of  the  child  is  both  manifest 
and  enormous.  The  instincts  which  spur  the  child  to  in- 
vestigate and  better  understand  his  environment  should  be 
nurtured  by  supplying  stimuli  best  suited  to  keep  them 
functioning  naturally.  There  should  be  ever  present  a 
genuine  mixture  of  the  new,  the  unusual,  and  the  familiar. 
Such  a  mixture  provides  adequately  for  both  the  gradation 
and  sequence  of  materials.  It  imposes  upon  the  teacher 
the  responsibility  of  systematizing  the  stimuH  he  employs. 

Importance  of  Simple  Interest.  —  The  early  appearance 
and  strong  manifestation  of  simple  interest  in  the  life  of  the 
child  indicate  its  fundamental  character.  It  is  the  key  to 
sensation  and  subsequent  steps  in  conception.  It  stimu- 
lates activity  and  thereby  provides  for  normal  physical 
development.     Stimulated   under  proper  conditions,  it  is 


THE   EMOTIONAL   FACTOR   IN   TEACHING  137 

an  elixir  of  life  to  the  growing  child.  Substituted  for  motive, 
it  dwarfs  the  spirit  of  research  and  investigation  by  re- 
quiring an  ever-changing  environment. 

Motive 

The  term  motive,  like  that  of  interest,  is  familiar  both  in 
common  parlance  and  in  the  technical  language  of  the 
student  of  education.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  a 
single  meaning  for  it  should  not  be  commonly  accepted 
and  thereby  avoid  the  confusion  which  frequently  arises 
when  the  term  is  used. 

Its  Use  in  the  Law.  —  In  the  law  the  term  motive  has 
always  had  a  specific  meaning.  This  meaning  has  gradually 
filtered  through  to  the  masses  who  use  it  intelligently. 
Oftentimes  in  criminal  cases  the  whole  trend  of  the  pro- 
cedure of  the  prosecution  is  to  establish  the  motive  of  the 
defendant.  What  the  prosecution  means  by  motive  is 
implicitly  understood  by  both  the  defendant  and  the  jury. 
A  simple  analysis  will  lay  bare  the  factors  of  motive. 

The  Threefold  Aspect  of  Motive.  —  Every  motivated 
act  consists  of  three  distinct  conscious  states.  First,  the 
actor  is  clearly  aware  that  he  is  performing  the  act  in  its 
various  stages  of  progress ;  secondly,  he  is  conscious  of  a 
certain  end,  or  goal,  or  ideal,  which  he  wishes  to  realize  ;  and 
thirdly,  he  is  conscious  of  the  relation  of  the  act  performed 
to  the  value  which  he  wishes  to  realize  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  act. 

If  the  defendant  can  establish  the  fact  that  he  was  not 
conscious  of  the  value  referred  to  by  the  prosecution  when 
the  act  was  performed,  or  if  he  can  prove  that  he  was  un- 
conscious of  the  relation  of  the  act  to  the  satisfaction  he 
admits,  or  if  he  can  establish  beyond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt 


138  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

that  he  was  unconscious  of  the  act  when  it  was  performed- 
he  will  be  acquitted  on  the  ground  that  he  had  no  motive 
for  performing  it. 

It  is  in  this  specific  sense  that  the  term  motive  is  used 
here.  Motive  differs  from  simple  interest  in  that  it  is  al- 
ways associated  with  an  act  which  the  self  performs,  not 
for  the  direct  satisfaction  of  the  act,  but  for  the  satisfaction 
which  comes  to  the  self  as  the  result  of  its  having  per- 
formed the  act. 

The  Meaning  of  Motive.  —  One  spades  the  garden,  plants 
potatoes,  cultivates  them,  and  finally  digs  them,  not  be- 
cause these  several  acts  in  themselves  give  satisfaction. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  seldom  do.  But  because  the  self 
by  means  of  the  imagination  keeps  before  itself  the  satis- 
faction of  possessing  and  eating  the  potatoes  which  will 
result  from  the  aforesaid  acts.  One's  staying  on  the  job 
to  the  end  depends  upon  his  emotional  status.  If  he  Hkes 
potatoes  and  can  keep  before  himself  in  imagination  this 
feeling  of  satisfaction,  to  the  degree  that  it  outweighs  the 
dissatisfaction  resulting  from  the  labor  involved,  the  work 
will  go  on  to  the  completion  of  the  job.  If  at  any  time  the 
imagination  wanes  while  dissatisfaction  for  the  work  in- 
creases, there  is  likely  to  be  a  discontinuance  of  work. 
A  genuine  motive  is  present  when  the  self  is  keenly  aware 
of  the  satisfaction  which  will  result  from  the  act  being  per- 
formed. Motive  is  the  emotional  aspect  of  an  act  which  is 
performed  in  behalf  of  some  premeditated  goal. 

The  Twofold  Nature  of  the  Goal  or  Ideal 

The  values  associated  with  a  motivated  act  are  either 
generic  or  specific.  The  former  is  not  inherent  in  the  act 
itself,  while  the  latter  is  directly  related  to  and  dependent 


THE   EMOTIONAL   FACTOR   TN  TEACHING  139 

upon  it.  For  example,  a  pupil  may  study  chemistry  for 
credit  in  order  to  be  able  to  announce  glibly  to  the  world 
that  he  possesses  a  knowledge  of  chemistry,  or  to  show  that 
he  can  talk  intelligently  upon  matters  pertaining  to  atoms, 
molecules,  and  compounds.  The  end  sought  is  not  alone 
dependent  upon  chemistry.  He  is  using  chemistry  as  a 
tool  with  which  to  gain  distinction,  social  recognition,  a 
social  superiority.  He  may  gain  this  same  distinction 
through  a  study  of  history,  literature,  geology,  or  any  other 
subject.  Consequently,  the  value  uppermost  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  this  pupil  is  generic  in  character.  Generic 
values  may  be  obtained  in  many  ways  and  by  a  study  of  dif- 
ferent subjects.  On  the  other  hand,  if  one  studies  chemistry 
in  view  of  a  better  understanding  of  medicine  he  is  seeking 
a  value  which  no  other  subject  can  supply.  Such  a  value 
is  inherent  in  the  subject.     It  is  a  specific  value. 

Generic  and  Specific  Values.  —  The  educational  signifi- 
cance of  these  two  values  is  far-reaching.  The  ultimate 
consequences  of  seeking  either  of  these  values,  psychologi- 
cally speaking,  are  as  unlike  as  the  results  of  playing  store 
and  those  of  actually  running  a  store ;  of  telling  how  a 
family  should  be  reared  and  actually  rearing  one.  The 
former  dominates  on  the  playground,  in  the  kindergarten, 
and  the  primary  departments  ;  the  other  prevails  in  practi- 
cal life  outside  the  school,  and  should  dominate  largely  the 
work  of  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades  and  that  of 
institutions  of  higher  learning. 

If  pupils  do  not  develop  early  an  interest  in  subject- 
matter  because  of  a  consciousness  of  its  relation  to  certain 
aims  and  goals  they  have  set  up  or  should  set  up  for  them- 
selves to  realize,  and  if  they  do  not  develop  a  subject-matter 
bent  before  leaving  it,   serious  consequences  will   follow. 


I40  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Such  a  condition  prevails  when  pupils  remain  in  school 
through  parental  pressure,  when  they  drop  out  of  school 
on  reaching  the  legal  age,  and  when  they  discontinue  school 
on  the  completion  of  the  grammar  grades. 

Holding  pupils  in  school  by  stimulating  immediate 
interest  or  by  an  appeal  to  generic  values  is  better  than 
turning  them  out.  It  does  not  compare  in  value  to  that 
which  exists  when  subject-matter  is  studied  because  of  its 
direct  bearing  upon  a  certain  purpose  which  the  pupil  has 
set  up  for  himself  to  realize. 

A  Proper  Use  of  Generic  Values.  —  Specific  habits  are 
most  economically  established  when  the  initiative  and 
enthusiasm  required  in  their  formation  are  suppHed  by  an 
appeal  to  generic  values.  For  this  reason  an  appeal  to 
generic  values  in  the  elementary  and  intermediate  grades  is 
legitimate.  Unless,  however,  serious  consideration  is  given 
to  the  intrinsic  function  of  subject-matter,  pupils  will  tire 
of  school  in  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades  and 
choose  to  leave  it.  Fortunate  is  the  pupil  whose  teacher 
gives  major  consideration  to  the  specific  values  of  subject-- 
matter  and  draws  upon  generic  values  only  for  supple- 
mentary drill  on  the  fundamentals. 

Play,  Work,  and  Drudgery 

Play.  —  The  classification  of  systematic  human  ac- 
tivity into  three  classes  is  a  psychological  one.  In 
the  last  analysis  this  classification  is  based  upon  satis- 
faction. If  the  act  itself  gives  satisfaction  without  thought 
of  a  more  remote  object  of  attainment,  the  activity  is 
play.  "Dropping  the  handkerchief,"  "blind  man's  buff," 
"golf,"  "baseball,"  —  indeed,  fancy  work,  reading,  design- 


THE  EMOTIONAL  FACTOR   IN  TEACHING  141 

ing,  playing  the  board  of  trade,  and  similar  activities  may 
be  play  for  some  who  indulge  in  them. 

Work.  —  Work  differs  from  play  in  that  the  activity 
indulged  in,  though  not  distasteful,  would  not  be  performed 
were  it  not  for  the  satisfaction  which  the  self  anticipates 
will  result  from  the  act  and  not  in  the  act.  If  hoeing 
potatoes  were  play,  one  would  deem  it  a  privilege  to  hoe  in 
his  neighbor's  garden.  It  is  not  the  satisfaction  from  the 
hoeing  that  keeps  one  on  the  job,  but  the  anticipated  satis- 
faction resulting /rom  the  hoeing.  Hoeing,  therefore,  under 
such  conditions  is  work.  Most  of  Hfe's  problems  require 
work  to  solve  them,  and  most  of  the  genuine  happiness  in 
the  world  comes  in  the  form  of  anticipated  satisfactions 
which  are  associated  with  the  activities  of  daily  life. 

Drudgery.  —  The  happiness  of  play  and  work  is  inter- 
mingled somewhat  with  drudgery.  Strange  as  it  may 
seem,  drudgery  too  is  a  psychic  quality.  What  is  play  for 
one  may  be  work  for  another  and  drudgery  for  a  third. 
It  all  depends  upon  one's  habits,  experiences,  condition  of 
health,  and  the  fruitfulness  of  his  imagination.  Activity 
does  not  become  drudgery  when  it  in  itself  gives  satisfaction 
to  the  actor  or  when  an  anticipated  satisfaction  stimu- 
lates the  act.  It  does  become  drudgery,  however,  when  a 
disagreeable  act  is  performed  to  prevent  a  positive  dissatis- 
faction which  is  greater  than  that  caused  by  the  act.  For 
example,  the  manual  work  of  prisoners  is  usually  drudgery. 
The  activity  does  not  satisfy  and  the  result  does  not  satisfy, 
because  it  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  aims  and  purposes 
of  the  doer.  The  prisoner  works  because  the  dissatisfaction 
caused  by  the  work  is  less  than  that  which  would  follow 
the  punishment  that  would  result  from  his  refusal  to  do 
what  is  demanded  of  him. 


142  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

The  educational  bearing  of  these  three  forms  of  activity 
is  significant.  The  problem  at  hand  should  be  so  related 
to  the  pupil's  Hfe  that  it  will  appeal  to  his  basic  instincts 
and  thus  produce  play ;  or  it  should  be  so  related  to  his 
aims  and  purposes  that  it  will  arouse  anticipated  satis- 
faction and  thus  produce  work.  If  school  activities  cannot 
be  related  to  the  pupils'  values  they  should  be  discon- 
tinued. The  moment  school  work  becomes  drudgery  it 
generates  a  feeling  of  aversion  for  the  subject-matter  re- 
lated to  it  and  thereby  makes  further  work  upon  the  sub- 
ject distasteful  and  unsatisfactory. 

Examples  of  Drudgery.  —  Keeping  children  in  after 
school  to  complete  an  unprepared  lesson,  the  reading  of  a 
selection  a  number  of  times  as  a  punishment  for  failure  to 
prepare  it  properly,  the  spelling  of  a  list  of  words  a  hundred 
times,  or  the  solution  of  a  problem  twenty  times,  are  ex- 
amples of  devices  employed  by  inexperienced  teachers. 
These  make  school  work  drudgery  and  consequently  create 
a  feeling  of  aversion  for  the  already  neglected  subject  and 
thereby  make  its  accomplishment  much  more  difficult. 

Ideals  and  Prejudices.  —  The  significance  of  ideals  as 
positive  educational  agencies  has  been  implied  in  con- 
nection with  motive  and  more  specifically  in  connection 
with  generic  and  specific  values.  Both  of  these  values  are 
idealized  satisfactions.  Without  flights  of  the  imagination 
in  which  the  self  holds  before  its  consciousness,  as  it  were, 
situations  not  as  they  are  but  as  it  would  have  them  and 
without  ideals  to  stimulate  and  direct  human  energy, 
progress  is  at  a  standstill,  work  degenerates  into  drudgery, 
and  hope  vanishes  from  the  human  breast. 

One  of  the  most  worthy  aims  of  modern  education  is  to 
nurture  the  unfolding  imagination  of  children.     Literature, 


THE   EMOTIONAL  FACTOR  IN  TEACHINCx  143 

art,  and  design ;  history,  geography,  and  civics  —  in  fact 
all  subjects  properly  taught  stimulate  this  unfolding  of  the 
imagination  and  thus  pave  the  way  to  new  values,  new 
problems,  new  forms  of  work,  and  new  forms  of  happiness. 

An  ideal  is  an  offspring  of  the  creative  imagination, 
which  has  no  concrete  counterpart,  though  it  has  char- 
acteristics which  give  satisfaction  greater  than  do  those  of 
the  concrete  with  which  it  is  most  closely  associated. 
The  satisfaction  it  arouses  possesses  the  self.  One's 
psychic  energy  is  focused  upon  the  ideal  because  in  a  very 
true  sense  it  has  a  pull  upon  this  energy.  Closely  associated 
with  the  ideal,  though  often  contrasted  with  it,  is  another 
very  important  educational  factor  —  the  prejudice.  It 
differs  in  function  from  the  ideal  in  that  it  seems  to  hold 
or  push  the  directing  energy  of  the  self  rather  than  pull 
it  as  in  the  case  of  the  ideal.  A  religious  or  pohtical 
prejudice  causes  one  to  ''stay  put."  Under  such  con- 
ditions he  is  satisfied  with  prevailing  conditions.  When 
thus  affected  he  has  a  feeling  of  repulsion  for  other  re- 
ligions or  other  parties.  They  seem  to  keep  him  from 
them  by  a  psychic  push. 

As  a  rule  prejudices  retard  human  progress.  They  pre- 
vent adjustments  and  are  the  source  of  much  stupidity. 
On  the  other  hand,  certain  prejudices  are  safeguards  of 
human  welfare.  A  prejudice  against  lying,  steaHng,  decep- 
tion, disloyalty,  and  the  slacker  make  the  straight  and 
narrow  road  to  duty  not  only  easier,  but  more  certain  of 
being  traveled. 

A  great  responsibility  rests  upon  one  who  prejudices 
the  minds  of  the  young.  The  responsibility  is  great  be- 
cause of  the  psychic  tenacity  of  the  prejudice  and  because 
of  its  far-reaching  results  upon  the  life  of  its  possessor  and 


144  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

upon  those  whom  he  influences.  The  great  wars  of  history, 
religious  persecutions,  and  non-adjustments  of  many  sorts 
can  all  be  traced  to  ulcerous  prejudices  which  beset  the 
talents  of  men.  Our  guidance  in  this  phase  of  teaching  has 
been  anything  but  explicit.  Each  teacher  has  followed 
his  own  will  and  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience. 
The  law  of  chance  has  been  uninterrupted.  The  effect 
has  been  a  slow  and  laborious  struggle  in  every  progress 
the  world  has  made.  The  great  World  War  is  an  ob- 
jectification  of  the  harmful  prejudices  that  were  generated 
through  the  unwise  direction  of  the  peoples  of  the  Central 
Empires.  With  our  present  status  of  knowledge  it  is  safe 
to  follow  the  advice  that  one  should  attempt  to  establish 
only  those  prejudices  which  have  a  universal  sanction,  and 
consequently  strike  at  the  very  heart  of  human  happiness. 
Prejudices  against  dishonesty,  deception,  untidiness,  irre- 
sponsibility, disrespect,  shiftlessness,  civic  indifference,  and 
ignorance  are  of  this  character. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  prejudices  which  hamper  freedom, 
progress,  happiness,  and  a  universal  outlook,  should  be 
mellowed  and  ultimately  dissipated.  Universal  knowledge, 
research,  a  broad  social  contact,  and  especially  participation 
in  the  activities  affected  by  the  prejudices  will  do  much  to 
atrophy  them.  There  is  still  need  of  much  detailed  method 
in  this  field. 

Summary.  —  Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  emo- 
tions, good  teaching  consists  in  a  judicious  stimulation  of 
simple  interest  and  motive  and  in  a  wise  development  of 
suitable  ideals  and  prejudices.  There  should  be  a  gradual 
growth  from  a  dominance  of  native  interest  (simple  interest) 
which  controls  the  child's  activities  when  he  enters  school, 
to  a  dominance  of  motive  for  subject-matter  because  of  a 


THE   EMOTIONAL  FACTOR  IN  TEACHING  145 

consciousness  of  its  relation  to  vital  life  interests  and 
problems. 

Simple  interest  is  peculiarly  well-suited  to  stimulate 
sensation,  to  energize  drill  exercises,  and  to  supplement 
motive  in  times  of  fag  and  distraction.  Motive,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  an  indication  of  a  definite  purpose.  Under 
its  spell  pupils  have  a  definitely  established  aim  and  pro- 
ceed to  select  and  apply  materials  in  its  realization.  It 
is  the  dominant  emotional  stimulus  of  after-school  days, 
and  consequently  should  be  initiated  early  in  the  school 
career  of  children. 

When  simple  interest  is  the  dominant  stimulus  to  pupil 
activity,  such  activity  is  play  for  the  child.  When  his 
activity  is  directed  by  positive  motive  he  is  at  work.  When 
he  performs  an  act  because  of  a  negative  motive  the  act 
is  drudgery  for  him. 

Since  ideals  and  prejudices  are  important  factors  in 
motive  and  since  they  may  or  may  not  be  in  harmony  with 
the  social  welfare,  it  is  highly  important  that  the  teacher 
stimulate  only  those  ideals  and  prejudices  which  are  in 
accord  with  social  sanction. 


CHAPTER   IX 
MEANS  OF  GENERATING  RESPONSIBILITY 

The  Meaning  of  Responsibility.  —  The  state  has  pre- 
scribed an  age  of  responsibility.  By  this  is  meant  that  the 
individual  has  a  free  will  in  conducting  his  legal  affairs. 
An  "age  of  responsibility"  has  a  more  subtle  and  significant 
social  meaning  than  this,  and  one  fraught  with  greater 
social  significance.  It  means  that  one  has  acquired  the 
power  of  self-direction,  including  the  twofold  process  of 
selecting  aims  and  the  specific  means  by  which  the  aims 
can  be  realized.  It  means  that  one  who  is  responsible  is 
free  to  initiate  endeavor  and  that  he  must  take  the  conse- 
quences of  the  results  of  such  endeavor,  or  lack  of  endeavor, 
at  whatever  cost. 

The  presence  of  a  sense  of  responsibility,  wherever  and 
however  it  may  be  manifested,  indicates  that  the  in- 
dividual has  come  into  his  own  right  as  a  social  factor.  It 
means  he  has  cast  off  the  last  vestige  of  overlordship  and 
has  emerged  into  the  full  stature  of  psychic  life. 

Earmarks  of  Responsibility.  —  The  psychic  character- 
istics of  such  a  changed  condition  are  manifold  and  signif- 
icant. Interests  are  more  highly  specialized  than  before. 
Selected  processes  are  more  in  evidence ;  evaluation  is  a 
more  dominant  factor;  and  energy  is  more  specifically 
directed  in  the  laying  out  and  execution  of  plans.  Psy- 
chologically one  has  passed  from  the  dominance  of  generic 

146 


MEANS  OF   GENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  147 

values  to  that  of  specific  values ;  from  a  state  of  dominant 
external  influence  to  one  of  internal  direction. 

The  Evolution  of  Responsibility.  —  A  sense  of  responsi- 
bility is  an  acquired  and  not  an  inherited  trait.  In  this 
respect  the  child  is  largely  a  victim  of  his  environment. 
His  institutional  contacts  —  the  home,  the  church,  and  the 
school  —  are  by  far  the  most  influential  of  the  environmental 
agencies  which  determine  his  destiny. 

The  home  is  perhaps  a  more  potent  agency  in  the  crea- 
tion of  responsibility  than  is  the  school.  The  church, 
because  of  its  limited  opportunity,  is  the  least  significant 
in  this  connection  of  these  institutions.  Herbert  Spencer 
pointed  out  that  one  of  the  fundamental  aims  of  educa- 
tion is  adequate  training  in  the  "rearing  and  discipHning 
of  offspring."  ^  For  some  unaccountable  reason  the  school 
has  lacked  either  the  insight  or  the  courage,  or  both,  to 
face  this  responsibility. 

We  have  seen  fit  to  enrich  the  ideals,  to  increase  the 
knowledge,  to  determine  the  skills  of  pupils,  while  we  have 
refused  to  supply  instruction  and  training  in  the  high 
schools,  which  bear  directly  upon  the  home  training  of 
children.  This  position  of  the  pubhc  school  is  analogous 
to  that  of  a  state  which  provides  no  educational  direction 
for  its  future  citizens.  The  position  of  the  school  in  this 
matter  is  so  obtuse  and  the  results  so  far-reaching,  that 
one  wonders  why  private  schools  do  not  engage  in  this 
work.  The  business  acumen  of  private  educators  has  often 
led  them  to  sense  public  needs  before  those  who  direct 
the  agencies  of  public  education.  This  crying  need  of 
society  may  give  occasion  for  history  to  repeat  itself. 

The  above  suggestion  is  an  infringement  upon  the  right 
^  Education,  Spencer. 


148  "THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

of  students  of  school  administration.  Our  specific  purpose 
here  is  to  point  out  ways  and  means  of  conducting  the 
classroom  in  order  to  economize  the  time  and  energy  of 
pupils  by  pointing  out  practical  ways  of  stimulating  a 
positive  degree  of  responsibiHty. 

Charade}  of  Teaching  When  Responsibility  is  Absent.  — 
Teaching  which  touches  the  "learning  spot"  before  a 
marked  sense  of  responsibility  has  been  established  is  in- 
deed a  fine  art.  It  involves  an  explicit  understanding  of 
individual  characteristics,  of  racial  tendencies,  of  values 
associated  with  both,  of  established  hajiits  and  their  bearing 
upon  the  learning  process,  and  of  the  appropriate  stimuli 
to  use  under  the  circumstances.  In  this  stage  of  teaching 
the  responsibiHty  is  primarily  with  the  teacher.  She  may 
assume  it,  or  she  may  shirk  it  and  thus  be  a  drag  to  the 
proper  unfolding  of  the  child's  Hfe.  In  the  latter  event, 
there  may  be  no  prick  of  conscience  or  no  retribution  on 
her  part,  but  there  will  be  an  unnecessary  impediment 
in  the  life  of  the  child,  an  impediment  which  society  is 
morally  obligated  to  prevent. 

As  the  pupil  becomes  more  and  more  self-directing, 
teaching  as  a  consciously  directed  process  becomes  less 
necessary.  It  behooves  the  teacher  of  children,  therefore, 
to  arouse  this  sense  of  responsibility  by  every  means  known 
to  the  profession.  In  the  present  stage  of  method  one  can 
scarcely  hope  that  a  discussion  of  this  topic  will  exhaust 
the  list  of  means,  or  evaluate  satisfactorily  the  relative 
merit  of  each  member  in  the  list. 

Subject-Matter  :  A  Positive  Means 

A  most  wholesome  and  far-reaching  means  of  arousing 
responsibility  is  subject-matter  itself.     It  is  both  positive 


MEANS   OF   (iENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  149 

and  concrete.  Responsibility  develops  from  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  sequence  of  topics  in  an  organization, 
and  of  their  relative  value.  It  is  the  type  of  responsibility 
possessed  by  true  scientists,  historians,  economists,  artists, 
—  in  fact  by  all  who  have  mastered  a  particular  section 
of  the  world's  knowledge.  It  is  the  sort  of  responsibility 
possessed  by  Darwin,  Koch,  Pasteur,  Gibbon,  Macaulay, 
Galton,  Kidd,  Spencer,  Frankhn,  and  a  multitude  equally 
illustrious  in  their  respective  fields  of  knowledge. 

Once  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  investigation  and 
research,  and  fired  with  a  desire  for  greater  insight  and  a 
more  thorough  mastery  of  materials,  the  pupil  is  well  on 
the  road  to  independence  and  self -direction. 

The  Function  of  Organization.  —  An  advance  towards  a 
sense  of  responsibility  is  attained  when  the  pupil  con- 
ceives the  inner  relation  of  structure  and  function.  Until 
he  becomes  conscious  that  purpose  determines  structure 
and  consequently  is  revealed  by  it,  he  will  not  take  pride  in 
perfecting  his  own  handiwork  or  find  pleasure  in  scrutiniz- 
ing and  evaluating  the  handiwork  of  others.  Teachers  who 
do  not  stress  order,  consistency,  relative  values,  and  the 
intrinsic  function  of  subject-matter  have  not  taken  ad- 
vantage of  their  opportunity  to  enlarge  the  child's  sense 
of  responsibility. 

The  Causal  Factor.  —  Once  the  relative  value  of  the  parts 
of  an  organization  is  known,  it  is  a  much  easier  task  to 
recognize  the  causal  factor.  Nothing  will  give  a  keener 
edge  to  the  intellect  than  experience  in  determining  the 
causal  factor  of  events  and  situations.  Who  has  not  ob- 
served the  wonderful  intellectual  development  of  pupils 
which  resulted  from  a  brief  course  in  physical  geography, 
physics,  botany,  chemistry,  economics,  or  sociology? 


150  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Many  instructors  either  stop  short  of  the  causal  factor 
entirely  or  fail  to  make  it  explicit.  It  is  not  enough  to 
know  that  water  runs  ''up  hill"  in  a  siphon,  that  great 
beds  of  coal  and  oil  are  preserved  deep  in  the  earth,  that 
lime-water  will  cure  certain  forms  of  indigestion,  that 
a  balanced  ration  for  animals  pays,  that  ventilation  is 
important,  and  that  the  coldest  water  is  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pond  until  the  temperature  of  the  pond  reaches  four  degrees 
centigrade  or  lower,  and  then  it  is  at  the  top  of  the  pond. 
The  child  has  an  inalienable  right  to  know  why  all  of 
these  things  are  true. 

A  longing  for  the  truth  is  the  by-product  of  systematic  truth 
getting.  Pupils  who  have  been  taught  to  search  dili- 
gently for  the  why  and  the  wherefore  of  effects,  and  who 
through  such  teaching  have  found  genuine  pleasure,  will 
continue  in  this  attitude  of  investigation  when  dependent 
upon  their  own  initiative.  Teaching  might  well  be  judged 
by  the  investigating  attitude  of  the  pupils  taught. 

Mastery  of  Fundamentals .  —  Effective  investigation  de- 
pends in  a  large  measure  upon  one's  equipment  to  carry 
it  on  economically,  from  the  standpoint  of  time,  energy, 
and  relative  worth.  Relative  worth  is  closely  related  to 
one's  standards,  both  subjective  and  objective.  Economy 
of  time  and  energy  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  the 
character  of  one's  fundamental  habits.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  mastery  of  subjects  which  involve  a  high  degree 
of  technique.  One  must  have  reduced  the  fundamental 
processes  to  habit  before  he  will  find  satisfaction  in  any 
investigation  involving  arithmetical  values.  Without  such 
a  mastery  mental  energy  will  not  be  sufficiently  released 
to  accomplish  what  the  self  will  respect.  An  attempt  to 
express  one's  views  in  a  foreign  language,  or  to  reveal  one's 


MEANS  OF   GENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  151 

notions  through  an  unfamiliar  art  exemplifies  the  impor- 
tance of  a  mastery  of  the  fundamentals  in  any  field  of 
endeavor. 

Practically  all  pupils  enjoy  the  initial  phases  of  foreign 
languages,  mathematics,  grammar,  natural  science,  econom- 
ics, and  sociology.  Only  those  who  acquire  a  fair  degree 
of  mastery  over  the  fundamentals  continue  to  relish  these 
subjects  later  when  success  with  the  new  aspects  depends 
upon  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  old. 

In  all  subjects  in  which  the  efficacy  of  the  main  structure 
depends  primarily  upon  a  fundamental  foundation,  good 
pedagogy  as  well  as  good  sense  warrants  that  a  relatively 
large  portion  of  the  time  be  given  to  virile  and  exhaustive 
reviews. 

Problematic  Assignments. — A  sense  of  responsibility 
comes  from  one's  meeting  his  specific  obHgations  in  solving 
problems.  Such  obligations  are  easily  imposed  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  assignment.  The  mastery  and 
definite  report  of  problematic  assignments  will  inculcate 
ideals  of  responsibility  and  habits  of  accomplishment  which 
will  reach  to,  and  affect,  after-school  activities.  The  most 
important  prerequisite  of  a  problematic  assignment  is  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter.  A  thorough 
organization  of  the  subject-matter  should  precede  any 
attempt  at  a  serious  assignment. 

It  is  quite  as  important  that  the  teacher  carefully  in- 
vestigate the  preparation  of  the  assignment  as  that  she 
prepare  the  assignment.  Unrecognized  preparations  and 
unacknowledged  achievement  will  generate  a  feeling  of 
indifference  for  the  subject-matter  and  a  lack  of  confidence 
in  the  teacher. 

Some  teachers  prepare  good  assignments  for  their  pupils 


152  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF    GOOD   TEACHING 

with  the  express  purpose  of  keeping  them  busy  during 
the  study  period  and  then  proceed  to  present  new  material 
during  the  recitation  period.  This  practice  is  based  upon 
the  fallacious  behef  that  it  is  wasteful  to  take  the  important 
time  of  the  recitation  period  to  consider  what  the  child 
has  already  attempted  to  acquire. 

In  the  first  place,  the  normal  pupil  will  not  continue 
long  to  get  the  assignments  with  any  degree  of  zest  and 
comprehension  if  no  consideration  is  given  to  what  he  has 
accomplished.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  erroneous  to  as- 
sume that  an  assignment  worthy  the  mettle  of  pupils  will  be 
mastered  in  the  preparation.  In  the  third  place,  this 
practice  overlooks  the  fact  that  ability  to  acquire  knowledge 
is  much  more  valuable  than  knowledge  itself.  This  ability 
can  be  nurtured  best  through  a  careful  checking  up  in  the 
recitation  or  by  individual  supervision  and  not  by  mass 
teaching. 

Value  of  Voluntary  Contributions 

Mere  routine  and  a  lock-step  stifle  the  elements  of 
leadership.  Differences  and  not  likenesses  in  children  form 
the  background  of  truly  worthy  characters.  The  school 
is  duty  bound  to  develop  worthy  variable  traits. 

Individual  Reports.  —  Frequent  opportunities  for  pupils 
to  make  contributions  from  supplemental  sources  should 
be  offered.  Incidentally  these  contributions  enrich  the 
knowledge  of  the  class.  Their  greatest  value,  however, 
is  for  him  who  makes  the  contribution.  The  glow  of 
satisfaction,  the  increased  self-respect,  the  sense  of  re- 
liability, become  indelibly  fixed  in  the  personality  of  him 
who  makes  the  contribution,  provided  it  is  worthily  done 
and    graciously    appreciated.     Any    other    result    has    a 


MEANS  OF   GENER.\TING   RESPONSIBILITY  1 53 

negative  effect  so  far  as  establishing  responsibility  is  con- 
cerned. 

Optional  Work.  —  A  wide  variation  in  the  abilities  and 
attainments  of  children  makes  optional  work  an  essential 
factor  of  effective  teaching.  Since  all  pupils  cannot  go 
the  same  pace,  it  is  important  that  some  special  provision 
be  made  which  will  insure  a  maximum  accomplishment  for 
each.  In  well-regulated  schools  this  condition  is  provided 
for  by  adjusting  the  assignment  to  the  average  ability  of 
the  class  and  then  providing  special  aid  for  the  weakest 
of  the  group,  and  optional  work  of  a  supplemental  character 
for  the  unusually  gifted  children. 

With  all  of  its  defects  the  country  school  of  a  quarter 
century  ago  was  strongest  in  caring  for  the  unusually 
gifted  children.  These  were  given  great  freedom  in  thought, 
in  rate  of  accomplishment,  and  in  the  materials  assigned. 
The  graded  system  with  all  of  its  improvement  has  de- 
cidedly narrowed  the  range  of  opportunity  of  the  gifted 
child.  Supplemental  provisions,  such  as  optional  work, 
must  be  introduced  to  restore  these  opportunities  for 
maximum  development. 

To  be  effective,  optional  work  should  not  be  merely  in- 
cidental or  "busy  work."  It  must  be  an  organic  part  of 
the  school  program.  It  should  feature  in  both  the  assign- 
ment and  the  recitation  with  as  much  prominence  as  does 
the  regular  work  of  the  class. 

Those  who  are  trained  by  consistent  daily  procedure 
to  accomplish  what  is  a  master-effort  for  the  majority  and 
to  assume  responsibihty  for  additional  subject-matter 
cannot  escape  the  traits  of  character  which  make  for 
leadership,  with  all  its  implied  responsibility.  Professor 
Whipple's   investigations   of   the   gifted   child   show   con- 


154  THE   ESSENTIALS    OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

clusively  the  teacher's  responsibility  to  the  most  gifted 
of  the  class. ^ 

Experimental  Work.  —  Constant  acceptance  of  the  utter- 
ances of  textbook  writers  and  teachers,  by  pupils,  slowly 
but  surely  develops  a  servile  dependence  which  negatives 
the  underlying  factors  in  responsibiHty. 

Genuine  experimental  work  will  engender  independent 
habits  of  thinking  and  thereby  estabhsh  in  the  pupil  a 
wholesome  confidence  in  his  own  ability  to  evaluate  the 
situations  which  confront  him.  Recent  work  in  nature- 
study,  agriculture,  cookery,  dressmaking,  millinery,  in- 
cluding design  in  both  the  fine  and  applied  arts,  is  of  a 
wholesome  experimental  character. 

It  is  not  so  important  from  the  standpoint  of  responsi- 
bility that  this  experimental  work  produce  skill  in  ex- 
perimentation as  that  it  produce  experimental  ideals  and 
individual  confidence.  Unfortunately  the  school  has  fos- 
tered an  enormous  amount  of  dociUty.  Traditional  habit 
often  dominates  the  procedure  of  the  classroom  in  this 
connection  and  makes  it  difficult  to  enter  an  experimental 
wedge.  This  difficulty  is  being  gradually  overcome  and 
there  is  hope  that  the  readjustment  occasioned  by  the 
World  War  will  accelerate  the  forces  which  are  overcom- 
ing it. 

Social  Approval  a  Means  of  Responsibility 

Examples.  —  The  social  instincts  in  a  highly  civilized 
society  are  often  stronger  than  the  individuahstic  instincts. 
Examples  are  legion  of  individuals  laying  down  their  lives 
for  principles  upon  which  the  security  of  society  depends. 

1  Classes  for  Gifted  Children,  Whipple.  School  and  Home  Publishing 
Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois. 


MEANS  OF   GENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  1 55 

The  United  States  entered  the  World  War  for  no  less  a 
reason  than  this.  The  American  soldiers  and  their  com- 
rades of  the  allied  countries  demonstrated  the  dominance 
of  the  social  instincts  over  the  individualistic,  when  un- 
usual conditions  prevailed. 

One  will  not  consistently  and  forcibly  exert  energy  in 
the  realization  of  some  end  unless  he  has  some  assurance 
of  winning.  Few,  indeed,  will  continue  long  a  losing  game. 
An  effective  way  of  energizing  the  work  of  the  classroom 
is  to  make  the  pupils  win.  Strong  pupils  are  conscious 
that  they  are  winning  and  for  that  reason  their  work  is 
easily  motivated.  Weak  pupils  suffer  most  from  this  neg- 
lect. It  is  hardly  conceivable  that  a  pupil  can  keep  a 
strong  heart  for  his  work  when  he  fails  to  get  the  assign- 
ments and  when  subjected  to  the  criticism,  and  often  the 
punishment,  which  results  from  failure.  Neither  can  he 
be  expected  to  have  a  wholesome  attitude  towards  his  work 
when  his  reports  show  that  he  is  to  be  held  back  while  his 
more  successful  comrades  go  forward.  It  requires  a 
stalwart  soul  to  keep  up  good  cheer  and  to  retain  intel- 
lectual keenness  under  such  conditions.  It  is  unfair  to 
expect  the  weaker  children  of  the  class  to  do  it. 

Pupils  Want  to  Win.  —  Each  child  in  the  classroom 
must  be  made  to  win,  if  he  is  to  be  kept  in  a  wholesome 
learning  condition.  First  of  all  he  must  receive  the  un- 
stinted approval  of  his  teacher.  His  success  must  he  judged 
in  tenns  of  his  ability  to  do.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher 
to  see  to  it  that  he  does  some  things  —  many  things  in 
fact  —  which  are  complimentary  to  him.  It  is  due  him 
that  he  know  the  teacher  appreciates  his  success.  Many 
a  class  with  a  record  for  stupidity  and  indifference  has  been 
stimulated  to  brilliant  achievement  by  a  teacher  capable  of 


156  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

showing  a  gracious  appreciation  of  worthy  effort,  regardless 
of  its  absolute  merit. 

Consistency  is  a  jewel  in  this  connection.  Appreciation 
should  not  be  made  cheap  or  promiscuous.  No  sensible 
adult  cares  for  the  effervescent  and  indiscriminate  compli- 
ments of  an  injudicious  and  impulsive  person.  Pupils 
are  quite  as  sensitive  as  adults  in  this  particular.  They 
ignore  and  often  resent  cheap,  sentimental,  and  unwar- 
ranted appreciation.  On  the  other  hand,  they  long  for  the 
appreciation  their  effort  merits.  Such  appreciation  is  due 
them,  and  when  given  energizes  the  entire  work  of  the 
schoolroom. 

School  Agencies  Which  Offer  Opportunity  to  Win 

Many  school  practices  afford  concrete  opportunity  for 
pupils  to  win  the  approval  their  success  merits.  Dramatiza- 
tion in  its  various  forms  is  an  opportunity  of  this  sort. 
For  this  reason  it  is  an  excellent  motivating  device  for 
reading  in  the  lower  grades.  In  Hke  manner  it  is  effective 
when  used  in  connection  with  the  work  in  civics,  literature, 
history,  and  arithmetic ;  indeed  in  any  subject  which  lends 
itself  to  demonstration. 

Exhibits.  —  When  rightly  conducted,  exhibits  are  stimu- 
lating educational  agencies.  They  ofifer  opportunity  for 
social  approval  and  thereby  afford  an  impetus  to  greater 
application.  This  appHes  especially  to  effort  in  habit 
formation  and  the  products  of  skill.  It  does  not  apply  to 
phases  of  school  work  which  deal  with  thought  processes. 
Form  lends  itself  to  exhibition,  content  does  not.  The 
form  side  of  arithmetic  and  geography  can  be  improved  by 
exhibits.     It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in- 


MEANS  OF   GENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  157 

judicious  exhibits  of  work  in  these  subjects  will  materially 
weaken  the  thought  processes  involved.  Formal  subjects, 
such  as  writing,  gymnastics,  music,  sewing,  cooking,  manual 
training,  painting,  and  the  formal  aspects  of  other  subjects, 
are  wonderfully  improved  by  frequent  exhibits  of  the  work 
completed.  Such  exhibits  not  only  energize  those  who  pre- 
pare them,  but  they  force  comparison  and  consequently 
result  in  enriched  generalizations. 

Supplementary  reports  and  optional  work  have  been 
discussed  as  direct  agencies  of  responsibility.  They  also 
afford  special  opportunities  for  pupils  to  win  distinction 
of  a  wholesome  sort.  This  opportunity  should  not  be 
denied  those  who  can  take  advantage  of  it. 

Provision  for  Classroom  Materials.  —  One  of  the  finest 
forms  of  service  is  ofifered  in  this  connection.  Supplemental 
materials  needed  to  develop  the  various  subjects  are  referred 
to  here.  It  may  be  some  rare  historical  or  geographical 
specimen,  vegetables,  grains,  flowers,  insects,  implements, 
books,  maps  —  in  fact  anything  that  is  needed  to  supple- 
ment the  materials  presented  by  the  school.  Supplying 
these  needed  materials  offers  special  opportunity  for  in- 
dividuals to  win  and  through  the  winning  to  gain  in  con- 
fidence and  self-respect. 

Definite  Class  Approval. — ^  Entirely  too  infrequently, 
opportunities  are  given  for  the  class  as  a  whole  to  put  its 
stamp  of  approval  or  disapproval  upon  the  work  of  some 
member  of  the  class.  A  pupil  cares  far  more  for  the  un- 
qualified sanction  of  all  of  his  comrades  than  he  does  for 
that  of  his  teacher.  Yet  how  infrequently  are  oppor- 
tunities offered  for  a  specific  expression  of  the  class  on 
the  merit  of  the  work  done  by  its  individual  members. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  stimulating  interest  in  forma] 


158  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

work  is  through  a  vote  of  the  class  on  the  relative  merit  of 
the  work  of  each  member.  This  form  of  estimating  work 
forces  a  sharp  comparison  of  the  work  at  hand.  A  pupil 
whose  work  receives  no  votes  is  Hkely  to  scrutinize  quite 
sharply  that  of  his  associate  who  receives  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  votes.  He  will  be  more  susceptible  to  suggestions  of 
ways  to  modify  his  work  when  he  desires  to  merit  the 
consideration  received  by  the  work  of  a  comrade.  Teachers 
who  have  not  used  this  method  of  evaluating  results  will  be 
surprised  at  the  wholesome  effect  it  has. 

Topical  Recitation.  —  The  topical  recitation,  though  weak 
in  many  respects,  has  at  least  one  redeeming  feature.  It 
is  admirably  suited  to  establish  a  sense  of  responsibility. 
The  pupil  must  decide  upon  the  amount  and  quality  of 
the  information  he  needs  in  order  to  treat  properly  the 
topic  assigned  to  him.  He  knows  that  the  eyes  of  his 
comrades  will  be  upon  him.  He  knows  too  that  his  com- 
rades are  able  to  judge  his  recitation  by  comparing  it 
with  those  of  the  other  members  of  the  class.  This  method 
in  the  grammar  grades  and  the  high  school  furnishes  a 
powerful  motive.  It  is  akin  to  that  provided  by  a  place, 
on  a  literary  program,  a  club  program,  or  a  commence- 
ment exercise.  If  adequate  opportunity  is  given  for  con- 
sidering the  merit  of  the  reports  it  will  add  decidedly  to  the 
motive  aroused. 

Some  Forms  of  Blackboard  Work.  —  The  school  will  never 
go  back  to  the  excessive  blackboard  work  of  two  or  three 
decades  ago,  because  of  the  dust,  the  noise,  the  time  wasted, 
and  the  increased  opportunity  for  distractions  of  all  sorts. 
There  is,  however,  a  splendid  side  to  blackboard  work, 
which  makes  a  judicious  use  of  it  exceedingly  meritorious. 
This  phase  of  the  work  is  stressed  in  geometry  especially, 


MEANS  OF   GENEIL\TING   RESPONSIBILITY  159 

and  in  other  forms  of  mathematics.     It  should   have  a 
larger  place  in  other  subjects. 

It  is  exceedingly  exhilarating  for  one  to  realize  that  a 
definite  responsibility,  deepened  by  the  presence  of  the 
class,  is  on  his  shoulders.  Such  a  responsibility  is  afforded 
one  by  blackboard  work  when  it  deals  with  problems  which 
tax  the  energy  of  his  classmates.  Distractions  of  black- 
board work  can  be  materially  reduced  by  reducing  the 
number  sent  to  the  board.  Provision  should  be  made  for 
the  other  members  of  the  class  to  remain  at  their  seats. 
Type  exercises  should  be  worked  on  the  blackboard.  Other 
exercises  expressive  of  the  type  may  well  be  worked  on 
tablets  at  the  seats. 

Negative  Incentives  and  Incidental  Agencies 
AND  Devices 

In  the  chapter  on  emotional  controls  reference  is  made 
to  the  pull  and  push  of  stimuli.  In  this  connection  we  may 
think  of  them  as  positive  and  negative  incentives.  Those 
referred  to  above  are  positive  in  character.  Positive  in- 
centives lead  to  an  attitude  of  investigation  and  research, 
and  to  a  grasp  of  the  fundamentals  of  subject-matter. 
Negative  incentives  act  as  a  whip  upon  the  pupil  and  conse- 
quently prevent  the  fervor  which  should  accompany  inves- 
tigation, and  dampen  the  ardor  for  a  greater  mastery  of 
knowledge  for  which  there  is  a  feeling  of  positive  need. 

In  spite  of  their  relative  inferiority,  negative  incentives 
must  be  employed  until  more  is  known  of  the  teaching 
process.  Even  the  most  inspiring  teachers  find  it  inad- 
visable to  abandon  all  of  the  "whips"  which  have  been 
handed  down  the  ladder  of  tradition.  Oral  and  written 
periodic  tests  are  still  used  to  advantage  by  most  teachers. 


l6o  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

They  lead  the  pupil  to  see  that  he  must  "  make  good,"  that 
he  must  retam  enough  of  the  facts  in  his  course  to  satisfy  the 
examiner.  He  takes  notes,  reviews,  and  compares  his 
possessions  with  those  of  his  classmates  to  insure  his  being 
able  to  meet  the  minimum  requirements  of  his  teacher. 
This  caution  on  his  part  will  not  give  him  a  greater  reUsh 
for  the  subject-matter,  but  it  will  stimulate  a  more  accurate 
mastery  of  the  facts  considered.  These  facts  in  turn  may 
increase  his  interest  in  the  subject  itself. 

It  may  be  necessary  in  an  extreme  situation  to  keep  a 
daily  record  in  class  of  the  work  done  by  each  member  of 
the  class,  though  it  is  indeed  a  rare  situation  which  warrants 
it.  Such  a  practice  is  a  reflection  upon  the  teaching  abihty 
of  him  who  resorts  to  it.  It  is  distressing,  indeed,  to  see  a 
teacher  recording  what  he  thinks  the  various  recitations 
are  worth.  It  is  a  strange  drama  being  enacted.  It  would 
seem  tragic  were  it  not  for  its  comical  aspect.  It  may 
be  necessary  for  a  relatively  good  teacher  to  resort  to 
it,  but  it  should  be  of  short  duration,  and  should  be  the 
occasion  of  professional  embarrassment. 

Formal  Reports  to  Parents.  —  Reports  to  parents  may  act 
either  as  a  positive  or  a  negative  incentive.  Occasionally 
pupils  are  stimulated  by  the  appreciation  they  expect  to 
receive  when  the  report  reaches  home.  Unfortunately, 
however,  report  cards  more  frequently  serve  as  whips  than 
pulls,  and  consequently  are  negative  incentives.  They  have 
further  administrative  functions  which  need  not  be  con- 
sidered here,  and  which  may  justify  a  judicious  use  of 
them. 

Definite  Schoolroom  Requirements.  —  Responsibility  sub- 
jectively considered  is  an  aspect  of  character  in  which 
habit  plays  a  large  part.     For  this  reason  school  manage- 


MEANS  OF   GENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  t6i 

ment  is  no  small  agency  in  establishing  responsibility.  An 
insistence  upon  punctuality  alone  often  stimulates  initiative, 
requires  premeditated  and  systematic  planning,  and  often 
secures  a  readjustment  of  old  ways  of  living  by  a  willed 
program  to  overcome  physical  inertia  and  social  and 
economic  irregularity. 

Working  in  unison  with  the  social  unit  of  which  one  is 
a  part,  even  if  it  is  a  response  to  external  requirement  at 
first,  ultimately  has  a  wholesome  effect.  It  awakens  and 
enlivens  a  sense  of  social  responsibility. 

Positive  and  not  negative  means  should  be  employed  first 
to  remove  tardiness  as  an  obstacle  to  class  unity.  An  in- 
tellectual appeal  to  cease  being  tardy  may  result  from 
a  careful  estimate  of  the  waste  time  forced  upon  the 
school  by  the  distractions  occasioned  by  a  late  comer. 
In  a  school  of  forty  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  lost 
time  occasioned  by  a  late  comer  is  on  the  average  two 
minutes  per  pupil,  or  an  equivalent  of  eighty  minutes  for 
one  pupil.  Since  this  is  one- third  of  a  pupil's  daily 
study  time  it  is  clear  that  six  tardies  per  day  represent  an 
actual  educational  loss  equivalent  to  the  absence  of  one 
pupil  from  school  all  of  the  time. 

An  appeal  to  class  pride  secures  wonderful  results.  A 
little  rivalry  with  other  grades  and  other  schools  gives  a 
wholesome  impetus  to  punctuality.  It  immediately  puts 
the  tardy  pupil  in  a  position  of  offending  the  class  and 
subjects  him  to  the  condemnation  of  his  associates.  Few 
pupils  are  so  non-social  as  to  deUberately  ignore  this  social 
pressure  of  the  class. 

A  high  school  which  was  notorious  for  its  poor  habits 
of  attendance  was  practically  cured  of  this  ailment  in  a 
brief    time    by    a    class-cooperative   scheme.      A   general 


l62  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

plan  was  inaugurated  whereby  a  wholesome  rivalry  be- 
tween classes  was  sanctioned.  A  number  of  points  were 
given  for  success  in  the  various  forms  of  gymnastics,  music, 
public  speaking,  general  scholarship,  and  habits  of  attend- 
ance, including  punctuahty  and  full  time  attendance. 
The  last  two  items  were  given  more  points  than  the  others 
for  obvious  reasons.  The  successful  class  was  awarded  a 
prize  by  the  school,  which  in  turn  it  gave  to  the  school 
with  its  insignia  upon  it. 

The  classes  were  not  slow  to  see  the  effect  of  scholar- 
ship and  punctuality  upon  the  final  outcome.  The  classes 
of  poorest  scholarship  and  most  Kkely  to  be  irregular  at 
school  were  first  to  recognize  that  punctuahty  was  more 
vital  to  them  than  to  those  of  greater  scholastic  tendencies. 
Class  meetings  were  held  and  the  transgressors  in  the  several 
classes  were  told  in  no  uncertain  terms  by  their  associates 
that  they  must  mend  their  ways  in  order  to  remain  in  good 
standing  with  the  class  organization  and  with  the  in- 
dividual members  composing  it.  The  results  were 
splendid. 

There  are  some  weaknesses  in  a  motivating  device  of 
this  sort.  It  is  meritorious  in  that  it  increases  and  in- 
tensifies the  group  consciousness  and  thereby  tends  to 
subordinate  the  self  to  the  welfare  of  the  group.  Such 
consciousness  and  subordination  are  the  essence  of  the 
responsibihty  needed  in  a  democracy. 

Pupil  Organizations.  —  From  the  standpoint  of  leader- 
ship nothing  the  school  can  do  is  more  helpful  than  well- 
supervised  pupil  organizations.  They  impose  a  degree  of 
self-direction  unobtainable  in  the  classroom.  Opportunities 
are  legion  in  this  connection.  A  little  encouragement, 
proper  supervision,  and  adequate  safeguards  for  the  pre- 


MEANS  OF    GENERATING   RESPONSIBILITY  163 

scribed  work  of  the  school  are  all  that  is  necessary  to  make 
it  a  success. 

In  a  large  high  school  there  should  be  enough  of  this 
sort  of  activity  to  justify  a  supervisor  who  will  give  all  of 
his  time  to  directing  these  extra  schoolroom  enterprises. 
Certainly  they  are  no  less  educative  and  far-reaching  in 
their  influence  than  other  work  now  receiving  the  entire 
time  of  special  supervisors. 

Standardized  Tests.  —  Standardized  tests  have  not  a 
little  bearing  upon  individual  responsibility.  A  conscious- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  that  his  relative  standing  does 
not  depend  upon  the  biased  judgment  and  the  prejudices 
of  his  teacher,  but  upon  an  impartial  comparison  of  his 
success  with  the  average  success  of  a  large  and  widely 
distributed  group,  leads  him  to  begin  the  process  of  self- 
evaluation,  which  usually  results  in  a  better  perspective, 
a  stronger  rehance  upon  his  own  resources,  and  a  more 
intelHgent  direction  of  his  own  schoolroom  activities. 


CHAPTER   X 
VALUE  AND  CHARACTER   OF  EFFECTIVE  STIMULI 

The  Use  of  Stimuli.  —  The  only  contact  which  the 
embryonic  consciousness  of  the  child  has  with  the  outside 
world  is  through  a  complicated  nerve  system  which  termi- 
nates in  the  special  senses.  The  character  and  variety  of 
contacts  which  these  special  senses  have  with  the  en- 
vironment determine  in  a  large  measure  the  development 
of  this  embryonic  consciousness. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  child's  development  there  is 
no  attempt  on  the  part  of  his  elders  to  systematize  the 
stimuli  which  he  receives.  The  contacts  which  he  has  are 
incidental  and  unorganized.  Like  the  butterfly,  he  attends 
to  one  stimulus  after  another,  each  in  turn  producing  in- 
tense but  momentary  rapture.  He  is  yet  unfamiHar  with 
organized  games. 

After  a  little  while  the  development  of  the  play  instinct 
tends  to  stabilize  and  systematize  his  conduct.  He  now 
finds  pleasure  in  doing  a  thing  many  times.  The  little 
games  which  he  plays  to  satisfy  these  instincts  require 
repeated  attention  to  the  things  of  his  experience.  This 
repetition  of  sensation  enriches  his  percepts  and  lays  the 
foundation  of  the  fundamental  habits. 

Again,  the  environment  of  the  home,  to  which  the  child 
is  exposed,  provides  the  first  systematized  stimuli  of  his 

164 


VALUE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  EFFECTIVE  STIMULI     165 

experience.  Unconscious  of  any  definite  results,  he  sub- 
mits to  regular  times  for  eating,  sleeping,  and  exercising. 
He  observes  the  character  and  use  of  the  various  articles 
of  the  house  and  is  gradually  trained  to  adapt  himself  to 
the  conventions  of  the  home.  These  early  home  contacts 
begin  to  organize  his  life  in  harmony  with  his  later  needs. 

Many  of  the  stimuli  of  the  home  are  consciously  directed 
by  those  in  charge,  in  an  attempt  to  determine  the  life 
attitude  of  the  child.  In  some  homes  these  stimuli  are 
consistently  and  systematically  directed  with  excellent 
results.  Imitation,  however,  plays  the  largest  role  in  the 
home  management  of  children.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
legitimate  aims  of  home  management  and  the  most  effective 
means  of  attaining  them  have  not  been  agreed  upon  and 
popularized.  Educational  leaders,  Hke  physicians,  seem 
possessed  with  the  notion  that  "home  remedies"  are 
dangerous.  Home  remedies  will  and  should  be  used. 
There  should  be  a  common  agreement  as  to  which  remedies 
are  most  effective. 

Not  until  the  child  reaches  the  school  is  there  a  con- 
sistent conscious  effort  to  determine  his  contacts  in  the 
light  of  the  demands  society  will  make  upon  him.  Here 
certain  specific  aims  are  established  and  materials  se- 
lected. Through  bringing  him  in  contact  with  these  ma- 
terials it  is  expected  that  he  will  realize  the  aims  which  are 
held  up  for  him.  An  important  function  of  teaching  is  to 
bring  the  child  into  a  wholesome  understanding  with  these 
materials.  This  means  adjustment,  adaptation,  amplifica- 
tion. It  means  an  employment  of  those  teaching  devices 
which  are  known  to  be  effective.  One  chief  difficulty  in- 
volved in  preparation  for  teaching  is  a  mastery  of  the 
stimuli  to  be  used. 


1 66  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Classes  of  Stimuli 

Concrete  Stimuli.  —  Before  entering  school  the  child 
has  had  a  relatively  rich  experience  with  concrete  stimuli. 
He  has  had  first-hand  experience  with  the  animals,  plants, 
minerals,  and  the  inorganic  matter  of  his  environment. 
A  fairly  good  stock  of  concepts  has  resulted  from  these 
sense  experiences.  It  is  part  of  the  business  of  the  school 
to  enrich  these  concepts,  to  form  new  ones,  to  develop 
fundamental  generalizations,  and  to  give  the  pupil  a 
mastery  of  their  appropriate  symbols. 

Unfortunately,  the  teacher  too  often  assumes  that  the 
child's  out-of-school  contacts  have  been  ample.  Conse- 
quently he  proceeds  to  give  much  of  the  time  to  teaching 
symbols  and  to  enriching  the  content  of  these  symbols. 

First-Hand  Experiences.  —  Many  of  the  child's  concrete 
experiences  have  been  wholly  inadequate,  due  to  lack  of 
proper  incentives.  Many  a  boy  reared  on  a  farm  and  in 
the  midst  of  wild  flowers  and  insects  knows  little  or  nothing 
of  them  until  his  first  real  acquaintance  with  them  in  th-e 
classroom,  where  properly  set  problems  give  specific 
direction  to  his  energies.  What  and  how  much  one  sees 
depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  what  his  problems  are. 
So  far  as  the  solutions  of  out-of-school  problems  have 
determined  the  child's  sensations,  it  is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  his  sense  experiences  have  been  adequate. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  inquire  into  these  out- 
of-school  experiences.  When  defective  it  should  set  up 
problems,  the  solutions  of  which  require  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  concrete  materials. 

Important  as  concrete  objects  are,  they  usually  fail  to 
arouse  a  sufficient  response  on  the  part  of  children  to  in- 


VALUE  AND   CHARACTER  OF  EFFECTIVE  STIMULI     167 

sure  vivid  sensations,  until  they  become  a  necessary  means 
of  solving  the  pupil's  problems.  Materials  brought  into 
the  classroom  for  incidental  observation,  unless  they  are  of 
an  unusual  nature,  will  result  in  relatively  poor  attention 
owing  to  the  lack  of  a  specific  motive. 

Concrete  objects  to  be  of  most  worth  should  be  used  as 
a  means  to  an  end  and  not  as  an  end  in  themselves.  When 
examined  to  justify  some  opinion  or  to  secure  some  desired 
information  the  impression  of  them  is  much  more  com- 
plete and  lasting.  When  thus  employed,  supplementary 
materials  in  nature  study,  biology,  the  physical  sciences, 
mathematics,  geography,  and  history  are  wonderfully  effec- 
tive in  the  learning  process. 

Illustrative  Materlals 

Maps.  — -  Second  to  real  materials  are  those  of  the 
illustrative  type  such  as  maps,  diagrams,  graphic  illus- 
trations, and  models.  Perhaps  the  map  is  the  most 
significant  and  widely  used  of  these.  As  a  rule  it  is  not 
poverty  so  much  as  low  ideals  that  prevent  a  free  use  of 
maps.  A  recent  visitor  to  a  country  school  in  Illinois 
approached  a  map  case  attached  to  the  wall.  Surrounded 
by  several  children  he  proceeded  to  pry  the  case  open. 
Finally  he  drew  down  a  long  imprisoned  map,  which  brought 
the  following  exclamation  from  one  of  the  pupils:  ''Oh, 
that's  what's  in  that  thing!" 

It  is  this  indifference  to  the  value  of  maps  in  the  teach- 
ing process  that  makes  the  situation  most  discouraging. 
Young  teachers  as  a  rule  neglect  to  use  maps  freely.  Even 
when  the  map  is  used,  lack  of  comparison  and  detailed 
observation  rob  this  device  of  much  of  its  merit. 

Proper  Use  of  Maps.  —  To  be  used  freely  maps  must  be 


l68  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

in  good  workable  cases  and  placed  where  the  light  is  good. 
When  the  map  is  to  be  used  in  the  recitation  it  is  usually 
best  to  pull  it  down  before  beginning  the  recitation,  though 
it  may  not  be  needed  until  the  latter  part  of  the  recitation. 
Too  frequently  pupils  refer  to  a  map  in  an  incidental  way. 
Occasionally  a  child  will  condescend  to  approach  it  and 
with  a  quick  wave  of  the  hand  point  in  an  indefinite  way 
toward  the  place  under  consideration.  It  is  rare  indeed 
that  one  sees  a  grade  pupil  approach  a  map  and  with  the 
hand  or  pointer  carefully  trace  the  boundary  of  a  territory, 
the  course  of  a  river,  or  the  route  of  an  army.  It  is  such 
a  detailed  use  of  a  map  as  this  that  really  counts,  both  for 
the  one  who  does  it  and  for  those  who  observe. 

Diagrams  and  Illustrations.  —  Nothing  reveals  a  teacher's 
mastery  over  the  teaching  process  better  than  an  intelH- 
gent  use  of  diagrams  and  illustrations.  When  a  situation  is 
somewhat  obscure,  a  graphic  or  verbal  illustration  will 
touch  the  obscure  spot  or  center  of  confusion.  When 
political  parties  want  to  impress  the  select  voter  with  their 
merit,  they  call  upon  noted  cartoonists  to  portray  it  in 
graphic  form.  They  send  into  the  field  those  speakers  who 
have  the  ability  to  portray  the  party's  merits  with  simple, 
homely  illustrations.  Lincoln  was  a  "past  master"  at 
illustration ;  and  Mr.  Bryan,  who  doubtless  has  addressed 
more  people  than  any  other  American  statesman,  uses 
concrete  illustrations  most  effectively. 

Explatiation  tires  and  irritates  one  who  vaguely  under- 
stands a  situation  or  a  principle.  An  illustration,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  the  opposite  effect.  Its  individual  aspect 
interests,  while  its  concreteness  offers  opportunity  for  further 
comparison  and  richer  generalization.  Yet  how  frequently 
does  one  see  a  teacher,  worked  up  to  the  "third  degree"  of 


VALUE  AND   CHARACTER  OF  EFFECTIVE  STIMULI     169 

intensity,  ''chattering  like  a  magpie"  in  her  attempt  to 
explain  a  situation  which  is  unexplainable  because  the  words 
employed  have  no  content  to  the  confused  pupils. 

The  Use  of  Models.  —  There  has  been  not  a  little  dis- 
cussion of  the  relative  use  of  the  model  as  a  teaching 
agency.  Strange  to  say  the  end  of  the  discussion  is  not 
yet.  Some  maintain  strongly  that  type  compositions  will 
aid  materially  in  improving  the  compositions  of  children 
since,  as  they  argue,  language  usage  is  largely  a  matter 
of  imitation.  Others  as  strongly  maintain  that  the  model 
is  too  far  removed  from  the  pupil's  experiences  and  conse- 
quently fails  to  make  a  strong  appeal  to  him.  Those  of 
the  latter  school  prefer  to  compare  the  compositions  of  the 
pupils  and  thus  arrive  at  those  qualities  of  composition 
which  express  thoughts  and  feelings  most  effectively. 

Doubtless  both  methods  are  valuable.  It  depends  en- 
tirely upon  their  order.  After  fundamental  principles  of 
discourse  have  been  derived  by  means  of  comparison, 
it  will  add  much  to  the  inspiration  and  confidence  of  the 
children  to  find  that  a  writer  of  note  has  recognized  the 
same  principles  and  used  the  same  form  they  have  found 
effective  in  conveying  their  thoughts. 

Models  in  other  subjects  are  scarcely  more  appreciated 
than  in  composition.  There  is  a  strong  demand  for 
initiative  and  originality.  A  student  of  cookery  is  en- 
couraged to  experiment  with  materials  until  she  can 
make  a  recipe  for  herself.  Each  girl  in  a  sewing  class  is 
taught  to  design  her  own  dress.  Similar  methods  are 
employed  in  manual  training.  The  whole  trend  of  teach- 
ing is  to  stimulate  originality  in  both  thought  and  ex- 
pression. This  freedom  of  the  pupil  should  be  safeguarded 
by  properly  establishing  the  fundamental  habits  of  life. 


lyo  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Again  without  loss  in  individual  initiative,  individual 
research  may  well  be  evaluated  in  terms  of  a  generally- 
accepted  model.  The  results  of  experimentation  in  the 
cooking  class  may  well  be  subjected  to  a  sharp  comparison 
with  those  secured  from  the  use  of  a  standard  recipe. 
The  same  will  hold  true  for  the  products  of  the  sewing  room 
and  those  of  manual  training. 

But  more  especially,  models  are  of  real  value  in  the 
primary  grades.  A  model  room  from  the  standpoint  of 
attractiveness,  model  English  and  model  writing  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  are  valuable  innovations.  In  fact  school 
conditions  in  this  early  period ,  only  when  most  wholesome, 
are  worthy  of  imitation.  They  should  be  models  in  the 
finest  sense  of  the  word. 

Formal  Methods  of  Presenting  Subject-Matter 

The  child  early  expresses  himself  through  symbols.  At 
first  spoken,  then  printed  and  written  language  are  em- 
ployed to  convey  ideas  to  and  from  him.  One  large  phase 
of  school  work  has  to  do  with  the  teaching  and  interpretation 
of  symbols.  Another  large  and  significant  phase  involves 
the  teaching  of  new  knowledge  through  the  direct  in- 
strumentality of  language  itself.  Indeed,  most  school 
work  deals  with  knowledge  which  has  been  acquired  through 
the  instrumentality  of  language.  On  the  basis  of  the  use  of 
language  as  a  teaching  agency,  methods  of  teaching  are 
divided  into  classes. 

The  Textbook  Methods.  —  The  direct  use  of  the  textbook 
in  getting  knowledge  and  inspiration  is  common.  There 
is  no  indication  at  present  that  this  practice  is  to  be  aban- 
doned even  partially  in  the  near  future.     Textbooks  have 


VALUE  AND   CHARACTER  OF   EFFECTIVE  STIMULI     171 

so  improved,  both  as  to  information  and  method,  that  they 
are  indispensable  to  the  modern  school. 

McMurry  ^  analyzes  textbook  usage  into  three  methods. 
The  first  requires  the  pupil  to  learn  the  language  of  the 
author  verbatim,  as  if  it  had  some  magic  power.  Much  of 
the  Sunday-school  work  has  consisted  of  this  method  of 
teaching.  Teaching  a  verbal  mastery  of  definitions  in 
grammar,  arithmetic,  geography,  composition ;  a  similar 
mastery  of  propositions  and  corollaries  in  geometry ;  the 
memorizing  of  poems  and  prose  —  are  examples  of  this 
form  of  method. 

This  method  is  often  both  obstructive  and  destructive. 
It  degenerates  into  formaHsm,  and  often  results  in  the 
short-circuiting  of  words.  It  reduces  the  teacher's  re- 
sponsibility to  the  minimum.  It  requires  little  forethought 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  employ  the  verbal  method  of 
knowledge-getting.  He  need  not  concern  himself  with 
relative  values  or  with  the  psychic  processes  involved  in 
getting  the  knowledge  contemplated.  An  insistent  de- 
mand for  results  and  enough  influence  and  strength  to  see 
that  this  demand  is  obeyed  seem  to  be  the  essential  pre- 
requisites to  this  sort  of  teaching. 

There  is  no  economic,  ethical,  or  aesthetic  reason  for 
the  verbal  mastery  of  subject-matter  until  it  is  relatively 
well  understood  by  the  child.  There  is  enough  worthy 
subject-matter  that  the  child  can  understand  and  appreciate 
without  it  being  necessary  to  clog  his  "psychic  machinery" 
with  "non-absorbent"  materials. 

The  second  method  involves  that  usage  of  the  textbook 
in  which  the  thoughts  of  the  author  are  interpreted  in  terms 
of  the  pupil's  own  experiences.  This  is  the  most  common 
'  Method  of  Recitation,  McMurry.     The  Macmillan  Co, 


172  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

method  of  the  elementary  school.  History,  geography, 
and  reading  especially  lend  themselves  to  this  method. 
It  is  a  strong  method  in  knowledge  getting  and  in  the 
development  of  language.  It  is  weak  in  that  it  does  not 
stimulate  sufi&cient  initiative  or  lend  itself  to  a  sufficient 
development  of  sound  judgment. 

For  mature  students  who  have  already  raised  vital  prob- 
lems for  themselves  to  solve  and  who  are  comparing  the 
judgments  of  textbook  writers  as  a  means  of  solving 
these  problems,  this  method  is  effective.  Whenever  the 
teacher  can  keep  vital  problems  before  his  children,  which 
require  an  examination  of  the  materials  in  the  text 
for  their  solution,  this  method  is  an  effective  teaching 
agency. 

The  third  method  is  concerned  with  that  usage  of  the 
textbook  in  which  the  thoughts  of  the  author  are  used  as  a 
basis  of  free  discussion,  with  no  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  accept  the  author's  conclusion  as  final  or  even 
vital.  This  higher  criticism  leads  to  independence  of 
thought  and  to  a  comparative  study  of  many  viewpoints. 
No  work  that  the  school  does  is  more  stimulating  than 
this.  Here  again  definite  aims  are  necessary  to  give 
balance  and  sane  direction  to  the  work  at  hand.  Un- 
less this  method-form  is  surrounded  with  adequate  safe- 
guards, it  may  result  in  mere  quibbling,  endless  discussion, 
and  deceptive  generalizations.  Textbooks,  like  other 
instrumentalities  of  Hfe,  are  valuable  only  in  so  far  as  they 
are  rightly  used.  When  properly  used  they  are  of  inesti- 
mable value  in  the  teaching  process.  When  wrongly  used 
they  develop  mental  inertia  and  thwart  the  realization  of 
social  aims. 

The  Lecture  Method.  —  Many  beheve   that    the  serious 


VALUE   AND   CHARACTER  OF   EFFECTIVE   STIMULI      173 

conditions  which  have  resulted  from  an  improper  use  of 
the  textbook  method  may  readily  be  prevented  by  the  use 
of  the  lecture  method.  The  universities  have  adopted 
this  method  largely,  and  graduates  from  these  institutions 
who  are  engaged  in  teaching  have  been  inclined  to  employ 
it. 

The  arguments  in  its  favor  are  many.  The  responsi- 
bility it  imposes  upon  the  teacher,  the  inspiration  of  the 
teacher's  personahty,  the  close  sequence  of  thought,  the 
special  adaptation  of  the  subject-matter  to  the  needs  of 
the  particular  group  at  hand,  are  some  of  the  arguments 
of  its  advocates. 

Its  relative  merit  depends  upon  the  conscious  needs  of 
the  pupils.  If  those  who  are  lectured  to  have  raised  im- 
portant problems  for  themselves  to  solve,  if  the  lecture 
bears  directly  upon  these  problems,  and  if  the  lecture  is 
adapted  to  the  interpretative  abihty  of  the  pupils,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  its  effectiveness.  Under  these  condi- 
tions it  is  the  most  economical  method  available.  Graduate 
courses  in  the  universities,  courses  for  teachers  in  service, 
in  fact  for  all  teachers  with  definite  problems  to  solve,  may 
be  given  best  by  the  lecture  method.  When  these  con- 
ditions do  not  exist,  lecturing  is  by  no  means  the  most 
effective  method  of  presenting  subject-matter. 

The  Development  Method.  —  Efficiency  in  teaching  has 
been  impaired  in  places  by  a  literal  appUcation  of  the  de- 
velopment method.  A  superficial  study  of  child  psychology 
has  caused  an  undue  appreciation  on  the  part  of  teachers 
of  the  initiative  and  self-direction  of  children.  Many 
disciples  of  the  development  method  have  felt  that  it  is 
the  child's  inalienable  right  to  discover  all  truth  by  the 
process  of   "intensive  thinking."     They  have  proceeded. 


174  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

therefore,  by  this  method  to  "draw  out"  or  develop  the 
latent  abilities  of  the  child. 

By  means  of  questions,  mainly,  the  child's  experiences 
are  recalled  and  related  to  the  new  situation  at  hand.  Two 
harmful  practices  have  developed  from  the  overzealous- 
ness  of  the  advocates  of  this  method.  Frequently  they 
try  to  develop  what  the  child  already  knows,  or  what  is 
not  worth  the  time  and  trouble  expended,  or  what  cannot 
be  developed.  Again  they  try  to  "pump  water  from  a 
dry  well."  This  often  occurs  in  connection  with  the 
acquisition  of  definitions  and  the  explanations  of  principles. 
Usually  the  child  needs  more  experiences  that  are  rich  in 
the  fundamentals  involved,  as  well  as  an  awakening  of  those 
he  already  possesses,  instead  of  principles  and  definitions. 

As  a  supplementary  agency,  a  cautious  use  of  the  de- 
veloping method  results  in  all  that  is  claimed  for  it  even 
by  its  most  enthusiastic  advocates.  Its  successful  em- 
ployment requires  an  artful  use  of  the  question  and  a  keen 
sense  of  relative  values. 

Classroom  Questions 

On  the  basis  of  form,  questions  fall  naturally  into  four 
classes :  the  direct  question  —  Are  you  old  enough  to 
vote  ?  the  indirect  question  —  Why  does  water  run  up 
hill  in  a  vacuum  ?  the  alternative  question  —  Was  Ohio 
the  first  or  second  state  formed  from  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory?    and    the    elliptical    question  —  3X6  = ?     The 

fourth  president  of  the  United  States  was ? 

The  Direct  Question.  —  It  is  evident  that  the  relative 
teaching  value  of  these  questions  depends  upon  the  use 
that  is  made  of  them.  The  direct  question  so  frequently 
used  to  provoke  thought  is  a  failure  in  this  connection. 


VALUE  AND   CHARACTER  OF   EFFECTIVE   STIMULI     175 

A  pupil  has  a  fifty  per  cent  chance  of  giving  the  desired 
answer  without  doing  any  thinking  whatever.  When  the 
question  is  supplemented,  as  it  frequently  is,  by  a  sug- 
gestive intonation,  a  modification  of  the  voice,  and  a 
significant  look  of  the  eye,  the  chance  of  giving  the  desired 
response  has  reached  almost  to  a  point  of  certainty.  Fre- 
quently pupils  develop  a  rare  keenness  at  guessing  the 
answer  the  teacher  wishes  given.  This  form  of  the  ques- 
tion is  effective  when  information  alone  is  desired.  It 
does  not  provoke  thought. 

The  Indirect  Question.  —  This  question  is  the  most 
common  and  most  effective  one  employed  by  teachers. 
It  reduces  guessing  to  a  minimum  and  thus  paves  the  way 
for  responsible  thinking.  In  Uke  manner  it  imposes  upon 
the  teacher  the  necessity  of  knowing  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples. One  cannot  consistently  ask  effective  indirect 
questions  without  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  intrinsic 
function  of  the  parts  of  the  subject-matter.  The  first 
prerequisite  to  effective  indirect  questions  is  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  main  purpose  and  the  logical  struc- 
ture of  such  subject-matter. 

The  Alternative  Question.  —  There  is  not  a  large  use  of 
this  question  in  the  teaching  process.  Neither  is  it  an 
effective  tool.  It  stimulates  guessing  and  but  seldom  pro- 
vokes thought.  The  situation  is  rare  indeed  which  de- 
mands its  use. 

The  Elliptical  Question.  —  The  elliptical  question  has 
a  real  place  in  teaching.  It  is  especially  valuable  in  drill 
work  in  arithmetic  and  for  similar  purposes  elsewhere. 
Children's  books  frequently  contain  many  elliptical  ques- 
tions. They  appeal  to  the  child's  sense  of  curiosity.  They 
also  indicate  briefly  what  is  to  be  found. 


176  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

In  the  main,  the  indirect  question  should  be  used  in 
assignments,  examinations,  and  in  the  daily  recitation. 
An  organization  of  subject-matter  is  a  prerequisite  to  an 
effective  use  of  it.  Ability  to  organize  is  fundamental  to 
thought-provoking  questions. 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  VALUE  OF   COMPARISON 

Comparison  is  so  vital,  and  its  inadequate  use  so  serious 
that  there  can  be  little  danger  of  overstressing  the  im- 
portance which  McMurry  and  others  have  given  to  it,  by 
a  further  and  somewhat  detailed  treatment  of  its  natural, 
fundamental,  and  practical  aspects. 

Comparison  a  Natural  Process.  —  Comparison  is  a 
natural  process,  since  it  is  a  vital  factor  of  both  work  and 
play.  The  play  activities  of  children  and  adults  are  con- 
stantly stimulated  by  comparison.  The  competitive  ele- 
ment, which  depends  upon  comparison,  prevails  in  running 
games,  marbles,  sHng,  quoits,  tenpins,  tennis,  ball,  golf, 
and  racing  of  every  sort.  The  sharper  the  comparison 
the  more  exhilarating  the  game.  Few  persons  indeed  en- 
joy playing  with  an  unworthy  competitor,  and  seldom  does 
an  audience  enjoy  a  one-sided  contest.  EKminate  the 
element  of  comparison  and  the  game  ceases  to  be. 

In  hke  manner  the  impetus  to  work  results  from  the 
satisfaction  which  springs  from  a  comparison  of  a  past  or 
present  real  with  an  ideal,  partially  or  wholly  within  the 
scope  of  reaHzation.  The  impetus  to  mow  the  lawn,  other 
than  that  secured  by  external  pressure,  springs  from  the 
satisfaction  experienced  when  the  well-mowed  lawn  is 
held  in  imagination  alongside  the  image  of  the  existing 
lawn  and  evaluated  in  terms  of  social  approval,  personal 

177 


178  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

convenience,  or  enjoyment.  One  paints  the  house,  sods 
the  yard,  repairs  the  fence,  curries  the  horse,  and  "rubs 
down"  the  automobile,  because  of  the  satisfaction  that 
results  from  a  comparison  of  the  real  with  the  ideal. 

Fundamental  to  Vigorous  Thought.  —  Not  only  is  com- 
parison natural  as  revealed  in  an  analysis  of  both  work 
and  play,  but  it  is  fundamental  to  vigorous  thought  pro- 
cesses. The  raising  of  problems  is  as  fundamental  to  good 
teaching  as  the  solving  of  them.  We  appreciate  most  those 
authors  who  throw  bombs  along  our  mental  pathways  — 
who  make  our  satisfied  and  comfortable  opinions  un- 
satisfied and  uncomfortable.  We  appreciate  most  those 
books  and  articles  which  undermine  our  prejudices,  clarify 
our  superstitions,  and  broaden  our  perspective. 

In  Uke  manner  we  revere  those  teachers  who  provoke 
new  views,  stimulate  new  attitudes,  lead  to  new  conquests, 
and  arouse  in  us  a  confidence  which  we  once  thought  our- 
selves incapable  of.  Comparison  is  an  effective  means  of 
raising  problems.  No  more  stimulating  approach  to  a  new 
situation  can  be  made  than  that  of  comparing  it  with  .an 
old  one  with  which  it  has  some  elements  in  common. 

The  biologist  recognizes  this  truth.  He  approaches  in 
turn  increasingly  complex  specimens  by  comparing  them 
with  the  simpler  evolutionary  forms.  Through  similarity 
and  contrast  a  structural  relation  between  the  great  groups 
of  animal  and  plant  life  is  established.  It  is  the  edu- 
cational value  of  this  thought-provoking  approach  which 
causes  some  biologists  to  question  the  merit  of  a  general 
science  course  which  apparently  is  of  a  less  coherent 
character. 

A  thought-provoking  approach  to  a  study  of  both  South 
Australia   and  Argentina   may  be  made  by  raising   the 


THE  VALUE  OF  COMPARISON  179 

following  comparative  problem :  Why  are  corn  raising  in 
Illinois,  sheep  raising  in  South  Australia,  and  cattle  raising 
in  Argentina  respectively  the  predominating  agricultural 
industries  of  these  states,  though  all  are  in  a  similar  lati- 
tude? The  solution  of  this  problem  involves  a  knowledge 
of  the  comparative  amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall 
and  an  understanding  of  the  prevaiUng  winds,  surface  fea- 
tures of  each  country,  remoteness  from  large  bodies  of 
water,  internal  improvements,  etc. 

Comparison  of  Subject-Matter  Provokes  Thought 

Method  in  History.  —  The  materials  of  history  lend 
themselves  to  effective  comparison.  No  better  illus- 
tration of  the  efficacy  of  comparison  in  provoking  historical 
mindedness  can  be  given  than  Fiske's  Critical  Period  in 
American  History.  This  account  is  brilHant  and  effective, 
because  of  its  masterful  comparisons.  The  motives  and 
policies  of  statesmen,  the  character  of  colonial  govern- 
ments, their  chartered  holdings,  nationahties,  industries, 
tariff  laws,  and  a  multitude  of  other  factors  are  paraded 
before  the  reader  and  compared  for  purposes  of  accounting 
for  the  political  structure  which  sprang  up  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  from  the  varied  and  complex 
situation  which  immediately  preceded  it.  Other  historians 
may  have  examined  more  source  materials,  and  contented 
themselves  with  less  philosophizing,  but  all  must  respect 
John  Fiske  for  his  splendid  style,  which  is  characterized  by 
its  frequent  and  effective  comparisons. 

Method  in  Nature-Study.  —  Method  in  nature-study, 
because  of  the  newness  of  the  subject,  and  because  of  its 
kinship  to  the  natural  sciences,  is  more  comparative  than 
that  of  many  of  the  older  subjects.     Our  annual  corn 


l8o  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

shows,  seed  tests,  and  vegetable  and  flower  exhibits  are 
comparisons  of  merit.  Never,  however,  until  comparison 
in  nature-study  and  in  the  sciences  includes  fundamental 
processes  and  their  results  can  we  hope  that  children  will 
become  possessed  with  a  scientific  bent  for  nature. 

A  course  of  study  in  elementary  science,  it  matters  not 
how  adequate  it  may  be,  will  accomplish  little  until  teachers 
become  saturated  with  scientific  ideals  and  possessed  with 
scientific  knowledge.  The  situation  can  be  decidedly  im- 
proved under  present  conditions  by  introducing  depart- 
mental work  in  the  upper  grades,  and  by  substituting 
vertical  or  departmental  supervision  for  the  transverse  or 
general  supervision  now  in  vogue. 

Method  in  Teaching  English.  —  It  has  been  declared 
recently  in  some  quarters  that  the  waste  in  the  processes 
employed  in  the  teaching  of  English  is  more  marked  than 
in  the  teaching  of  any  other  subject.  When  we  consider 
the  results  of  four  years  of  high-school  English  in  specific 
courses,  not  to  speak  of  the  correlated  English  through  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools,  we  are  inchned  to  be- 
lieve that  the  declaration  is  true,  especially  so  far  as  it 
applies  to  the  teaching  of  composition. 

The  faithful  marking  of  relative  errors  and  the  casual 
discussion  of  these  when  the  papers  are  returned,  is  too 
indefinite  and  void  of  emotion  to  produce  a  decided  im- 
provement. Fewer  compositions  and  more  effective  com- 
parisons will  improve  the  situation.  Rotary  mimeographs 
and  projectoscopes  to  afford  proper  comparison  are  as 
fundamental  to  the  effective  teaching  of  composition  and 
rhetoric  as  microscopes  and  hand  lens  are  to  the  teaching 
of  biology.  The  comparative  method  afforded  by  such  an 
equipment  is  as  superior  to  the  common  method  of  dis- 


THE  VALUE   OF   COMPARISON  l8l 

cussing  isolated  compositions  after  they  have  been  read 
to  the  class  as  the  automobile  is  superior  to  the  family 
carriage. 

Comparison  Increases  Literary  Appreciation.  —  Literary 
appreciation  is  no  less  enhanced  by  comparison.  The 
excessive  use  of  the  moral  that  was  tacked  on  to  the  old 
fables  has  tended  to  estabHsh  a  strong  prejudice  against 
emphasizing  analysis  in  the  study  of  English.  We  hear 
sensitive  natures  proclaiming :  ''  Analysis  savors  of  vulgarity, 
and  prevents  the  deeper  and  more  universal  qualities  of 
the  soul  from  reverberating  to  the  gentler  and  subtler 
stimuli  which  radiate  from  truly  great  pieces  of  Hterature." 

If  the  intellect  needs  to  be  throttled  in  order  that  Htera- 
ture and  painting  be  most  highly  appreciated,  doubtless 
we  are  to  conclude  that  the  peaceful  and  contented  ap- 
pearance of  dumb  animals  is  due  to  their  high  apprecia- 
tion of  the  poetry  of  nature. 

It  is  reasonably  sure  that  but  few  of  us  need  be  seriously 
alarmed  over  the  excessive  discoveries  of  our  intellects. 
The  intellect  is  the  greatest  heritage  of  the  animal  world, 
and  there  is  no  serious  reason  why  one  should  not  use  all 
he  possesses  in  the  study  of  art  and  religion,  as  well  as  in 
the  study  of  industry  and  science.  Comparison  is  a 
positive  indication  of  intellectual  activity.  It  stimulates 
emotional  activity  as  well. 

A  striking  similarity  of  function  is  laid  bare  in  the  com- 
parison of  Longfellow's  Excelsior,  and  Jordan's  Life  of 
the  Salmon.  Both  structures  reveal  conduct  that  is  con- 
trolled by  an  inherent  and  impelling  force.  Jordan  re- 
veals the  instinctive  force  which  impels  self-preservation 
and  the  provision  for  offspring  in  lower  animals.  Long- 
fellow pictures  the  impelling  force  which  drives  superior 


l82  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

human  beings  on  to  marked  achievement.  There  is  a 
wonderful  similarity  in  the  function  of  these  seemingly 
widely  different  structures.  A  comparison  of  the  two  se- 
lections enriches  our  appreciation  of  the  splendid  adapta- 
tion of  the  structures  to  the  all-pervading  idea  of  each. 

A  comparison  of  Tennyson's  confession  of  faith  expressed 
in  his  Crossing  the  Bar,  with  Browning's  confession  of  faith 
set  forth  in  his  Epilogue  to  Asolando,  reveals  in  a  signifi- 
cant way  the  temperaments  and  the  philosophies  of  these 
master  artists.     Tennyson  expresses  his  faith  thus  : 

"Twilight  and  evening  bell 
And  after  that  the  dark  ; 
And  may  there  be  no  sadness  of  farewell, 
When  I  embark. 
For  tho'  from  out  our  bourne  of 

Time  and  Place 
The  flood  may  bear  me  far, 
I  hope  to  see  my  Pilot  face  to  face 
When  I  have  crost  the  bar." 

Contrast  this  quiet  and  peaceful  faith  of  Tennyson,  ac- 
cepted of  his  fathers,  with  Browning's  : 

"No,  at  the  noonday  in  the  bustle  of  man's  work  time 
Greet  the  unseen  with  a  cheer. 
Bid  him  forward,  breast  and  back  as  either  should  be, 
Strive  and  thrive  !     Cry  speed,  —  fight  on,  forever 
There  as  here." 

The  faith  of  each  is  determined  by  his  experience.  That 
of  Tennyson  is  gentle  and  submissive.  That  of  Browning 
is  vigorous  and  springs  from  life  itself.  Tennyson  "wraps 
the  draperies  of  his  couch  about  himself  and  lies  down  to 
pleasant  dreams."  Browning  girds  his  loins  for  greater 
conquests. 


THE   VALUE  OF  COMPARISON  1 83 

Keats's  The  Human  Seasons  becomes  more  and  more 
interesting  when  compared  with  Shakespere's  Seven 
Ages  of  Man.  Shakespere,  who  wrote  first,  speaks  his 
notion  of  the  evolution  of  the  individual  through  the  mouth 
of  Jaques  thus : 

"  All  the  world's  a  stage, 
And  all  the  men  and  women  merely  players : 
They  have  their  exits  and  their  entrances ; 
And  one  man  in  his  time  plays  many  parts, 
His  acts  being  seven  ages.     At  first,  the  infant, 
MewHng  and  puking  in  the  nurse's  arms. 
And  then,  the  whining  schoolboy,  with  his  satchel. 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  a  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school.     And  then,  the  lover, 
Sighing  like  furnace,  with  a  woeful  ballad 
Made  to  his  mistress's  eyebrow.     Then,  a  soldier, 
FuU  of  strange  oaths,  and  bearded  like  the  pard, 
Jealous  in  honour,  sudden  and  quick  in  quarrel, 
Seeking  the  bubble  reputation 

Even  in  the  cannon's  mouth.     And  then  the  justice. 
In  fair  round  belly  with  good  capon  lined, 
With  eyes  severe  and  beard  of  formal  cut, 
FuU  of  wise  saws  and  modern  instances ; 
And  so  he  plays  his  part.     The  sixth  age  shifts 
Into  the  lean  and  shppered  pantaloon. 
With  spectacles  on  nose  and  pouch  on  side ; 
His  youthful  hose  well  saved,  a  world  too  wide 
For  his  shrunk  shank ;   and  his  big  manly  voice. 
Turning  again  toward  childish  treble,  pipes 
And  whistles  in  his  sound.     Last  scene  of  aU, 
That  ends  this  strange  eventful  history. 
Is  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion. 
Sans  teeth,  sans  eyes,  sans  taste,  sans  everything." 

Keats,  much  less  analytically  and  much  more  beautifully, 
expresses  himself  thus : 


1 84  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

"  [Man]  has  the  lusty  sprmg,  when  fancy  clear 
Takes  in  all  beauty  with  an  easy  span : 
He  has  his  summer,  when  luxuriously 
Spring's  honey 'd  cud  of  youth  he  loves 
To  ruminate,  and  by  such  dreaming  high 
Is  nearest  imto  heaven  :   quiet  coves 
His  soul  has  in  its  autumn,  when  his  wings 
He  furleth  close ;   contented  so  to  look 
On  mists  in  idleness  —  to  let  fair  things 
Pass  by  unheeded  as  a  threshold  brook : 
He  has  his  winter,  too,  of  pale  misfeature, 
Or  else  he  would  forego  his  mortal  nature :  " 

Keats  dwells  upon  subjective  divisions  while  Shakespere 
portrays  in  the  main  the  physical  complement  of  these. 
The  analysis  is  not  quite  so  sharp  in  The  Human  Seasons  as 
in  The  Seven  Ages  oj Man.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more 
subtle  and  fundamental  emotions  are  portrayed  in  The 
Human  Seasons. 

No  one  is  so  foolish  as  to  maintain  that  it  is  the  function 
of  all  Hterature  to  reveal  fundamental  truths.  However, 
it  is  inconceivable  that  one  should  create  a  ''literary  gem" 
without  forethought  and  purpose.  These  purposes  may 
vary,  from  those  which  determine  a  series  of  word  pictures, 
harmonic  and  rhythmical  sounds,  various  emotional  con- 
ditions, to  those  which  deal  with  great  fundamental  prin- 
ciples. There  is  no  way  of  knowing  what  was  intended 
except  through  an  analysis  of  the  structures  created.  There 
is  no  better  way  of  finding  the  relative  effectiveness  of 
structure  to  reveal  its  function,  than  that  of  comparing  it 
with  those  intended  to  reveal  a  similar  function. 

Comparison  Clarifies  Thought.  —  Not  only  does  com- 
parison provoke  thought,  but  it  clarifies  it  as  well.  One's 
vague  notion  of   the  social  and  economic  conditions  of 


THE   VALUE  OF  COMPARISON  185 

colonial  days  may  be  clarified  by  a  comparison  of  the  funda- 
mental phases  of  that  hfe  with  the  fundamental  phases  of 
his  own.  A  comparison  of  the  houses,  furniture,  methods 
of  lighting,  heating,  cooking,  travel,  transportation,  pas- 
time, forms  of  etiquette,  and  the  conventions  of  those 
times,  with  those  of  to-day,  will  remove  many  of  the  absurd 
notions  we  may  have  of  colonial  life. 

One  will  understand  and  appreciate  human  purpose  and 
effort,  the  products  of  toil,  the  adequacy  of  knowledge  and 
training,  the  sanity  of  styles  and  fashions,  the  soundness 
of  judgments,  and  the  worthiness  of  motives,  by  comparing 
them  with  those  which  have  stood  the  test  of  time.  Vague- 
ness and  uncertainty  are  clarified  and  made  certain  not  by 
complicated  and  extended  explanation,  but  by  sane  and 
adequate  comparisons. 

Comparison  Stimulates  the  Memory.  —  Comparison  not 
only  provokes  and  clarifies  thought,  but  it  stimulates  and 
strengthens  the  memory.  Jones  ^  and  Pearson  ^  have 
demonstrated  that  correct  forms  in  spelling  are  held  more 
tenaciously  when  they  are  taught  by  comparative  methods 
than  when  presented  in  isolation. 

We  can  retain  with  greater  certainty  the  normal  yield 
of  wheat  of  the  great  wheat-producing  countries  of  the 
world  by  a  comparative  study  of  their  production.  Through 
comparison  we  more  easily  remember  that  Russia  and  the 
United  States  each  before  the  World  War  produced  in 
round  numbers  700,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  annually, 
that  India  produced  one-half  as  much,  while  France  and 
Austria-Hungary  before  the  war  each  jaelded  slightly 
more  than  one-third  that  amount. 

^  In  an  unpublished  report  by  W.  Franklin  Jones. 

^  Henry  C.  Pearson,  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.     Vol.  2,  241. 


l86  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

Most  eighth-grade  children  have  Httle  control  of  the 
facts  relative  to  the  sugar  products  of  the  world,  since  the 
yield  of  each  country  was  learned  in  isolation.  When, 
however,  it  is  held  up  in  comparison,  retention  is  easy. 
A  comparison  of  India's  and  Cuba's  production  of  2,000,- 
000  tons  of  cane  sugar  each,  with  that  of  the  United 
States,  which  is  three-fifths  of  that  amount,  gives  an  ac- 
cessible latch-string  to  one's  memory.  A  comparison  of 
the  beet  sugar  yield  before  the  World  War  ranks  Germany 
first,  Russia  second,  Austria-Hungary  third,  France  fourth, 
the  United  States  fifth,  and  Belgium  sixth.  This  com- 
parison at  this  time  is  especially  pertinent,  since  it  gives  one 
an  insight  into  the  prices  which  now  prevail  as  well  as  into 
the  relative  supply  of  this  food  product  in  the  other  coun- 
tries. All  facts  are  vivified,  and  their  relative  values 
emphasized,  by  comparison. 

Illustrations  without  number  can  be  drawn  from  the 
great  fields  of  knowledge  to  substantiate  the  efficacy  of 
comparison  in  the  teaching  process.  Unfortunately  cer- 
tain traditional  schoolroom  practices  prevent  its  free  and 
most  effective  use. 

Modern  Textbooks  Employ  Comparison.  —  Textbooks  are 
just  beginning  to  use  comparison  effectively.  Our  better 
geographers  are  putting  comparative  diagrams  and  maps 
in  the  back  of  their  books.  Some  historians  are  inserting 
here  and  there  a  set  of  comparative  maps  in  their  newer 
works. 

Objective  Standards  Force  Comparison.  —  No  single  feature 
in  school  administration  has  been  quite  so  far-reaching 
in  its  results  as  that  of  employing  objective  standards  in 
the  determination  of  teaching  efficiency.  The  economic 
maxim,  "put  the  oil  where  the  squeak  is,"  is  being  applied 


THE  VALUE  OF  COMPARISON  187 

to  the  teaching  process  with  splendid  results.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  determination  of  standards  and  their 
appUcation  both  depend  upon  a  sane  use  of  comparison. 

The  demand  for  more  efficiency  in  the  teacliing  process 
is  focusing  our  attention  upon  the  relative  value  of  teach- 
ing methods.  It  is  revealing  the  fact  that  we  make  too 
little  use  of  what  we  know,  in  grasping  the  unfamiliar.  It 
is  reasonably  certain  that  teaching  efficiency  may  be  en- 
hanced by  giving  greater  care  to  the  organization  of  facts 
already  possessed  and  by  comparing  these  facts  with  the 
new  materials  at  hand. 


CHAPTER   XII 
APPLICATION   OF  PRINCIPLES  TO   READING 

Industries  Employ  Expert  Knowledge.  —  The  scientific 
advance  in  the  half-century  just  past  has  materially  in- 
fluenced every  phase  of  organized  effort.  The  field  of 
industry,  especially,  has  made  much  of  this  expert  knowl- 
edge. Private  and  pubhc  enterprises  have  increased  their 
output  and  improved  the  quality  of  the  finished  product. 
By  means  of  improved  methods  wastes  have  been  prac- 
tically eliminated  and  energy  has  been  conserved. 

The  meat-packing  industry  alone  exemplifies  the  marvel- 
ous influence  that  conservation  has  had  in  the  industries. 
Under  the  new  regime  materials  that  were  once  wasted  are 
now  converted  into  useful  products.  The  dirt  on  the  skin 
of  the  steer  is  saved  for  fertilizer;  liis  hair  is  made  into 
brushes,  cushions,  mattresses,  and  shoddy ;  his  hoofs, 
horns,  and  the  marrow  of  his  bones  yield  an  abundance  of 
glue;  his  hide  is  transformed  into  leather;  his  bones  are 
converted  into  handles  for  brushes  and  knives,  into  hair- 
pins, combs,  buttons,  and  boneblack ;  his  fat  yields 
oleomargarine,  soaps,  and  extracts ;  while  his  life  blood  is 
carried  away  to  fertilize  soils,  improve  paper,  and  purify 
sugar.  Moreover,  through  the  touch  of  science  this  great 
industry  has  materially  added  to  our  food  and  has  im- 
proved its  quality  as  well. 


APPLICATION   OF   PRINCIPLES  TO   READING  189 

Schools  Must  Employ  Expert  Knowledge.  —  If  applied 
science  can  thus  enhance  the  value  of  the  steer  it  should, 
when  apphed  to  the  child,  produce  results  of  vastly  greater 
interest.  We  cannot  refrain  from  suggesting  that  it  is 
extremely  embarrassing  to  the  schoolmaster  that  he  needs 
to  draw  his  inspiration  for  scientific  teaching  from  the 
butchers  of  hogs  and  cattle.  If  it  pays  to  conserve  energy 
through  the  application  of  scientific  principles  in  the 
preparation  of  foodstuffs,  certainly  it  pays  infinitely  more 
to  apply  scientific  principles  in  preparing  the  child  to  meet 
his  social  obhgations  and  to  enjoy  his  social  heritage.  Just 
to  the  degree  that  the  various  phases  of  the  teaching  process 
are  understood  and  this  knowledge  is  efficiently  applied, 
just  to  that  extent  are  we  applying  scientific  principles  to 
our  teaching. 

Every  effort  for  the  serious  consideration  of  the  worth- 
whileness  of  subject-matter  and  method  is  indicative  of 
economy  in  education.  With  a  better  understanding  of 
social  problems  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  psychological 
principles  on  the  other,  we  are  better  enabled  to  economize 
in  the  selection  of  materials  and  method.  Materials  are 
judged  in  terms  of  social  standards,  and  processes  are 
sanctioned  to  the  degree  that  they  ultimately  result  in  a 
maximum  efficiency. 

Some  Basic  Principles 

Interest  is  Valuable.  —  The  doctrine  of  interest  has  been 
long  associated  with  the  process  of  learning.  Continued 
attention  without  any  immediate  or  mediated  interest  is, 
from  a  pedagogical  point  of  view,  an  absurdity.  One 
persistently  attends  to  that  which  has  a  paramount  interest 
for  him  and  ignores  that  which  makes  no  appeal.     If  we 


190  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD    TEACHING 

accept  either  Ostermann's  view  that  "Interest  is  con- 
sciousness of  value,"  ^  or  Baldwin's  view  that  it  is  "The 
impulse  to  attend,"-  we  have  cognizance  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  an  inherent  force  that  at  least  registers  the  degree  of 
one's  attention,  and  consequently  indicates  or  determines 
the  degree  of  mental  effort  expended. 

Wasted  Energy  is  Expensive.  —  It  is  a  lamentable  fact 
that  we  have  never  considered  seriously  enough  the  quan- 
titative side  of  effort.  Teachers  who  pride  themselves  on 
the  punctuaHty  of  their  children  and  on  the  relatively  few 
absences  recorded,  often  permit  recitation  after  recitation 
in  which  there  is  more  than  75  per  cent  of  waste  energy. 
Growth  comes  from  interested  application.  The  more  in- 
tense the  application  the  greater  the  growth. 

To  attend  to  a  stimulus  intently,  so  intently  indeed 
that  other  stimuli  are  isolated,  insures  a  high  degree  of 
association  and  a  maximum  degree  of  learning  for  the  child 
so  engaged.  It  is  the  function  of  method  to  create  this 
high  degree  of  attention  through  the  stimulation  of  strong 
motives. 

In  the  last  analysis  our  problem,  appHed  to  primary 
method,  is  to  lay  bare  its  motivating  factors.  At  the  very 
outset  it  is  apparent  that  an  adequate  discussion  of  this 
problem  includes  consideration  of  both  its  subjective  and 
objective  aspects.  To  emphasize  the  former  and  neglect 
the  latter  is  to  be  guilty  of  mere  theorizing,  while  an  em- 
phasis of  the  latter  aspect,  only,  is  indulging  in  arbitrary 
assumptions. 

Since  the  responsiveness  of  an  individual  depends  pri- 
marily upon  the  organization  of  his  experiences,  it  is  es- 

*  Interest  in  Its  Relatian  to  Value,  Ostermann. 
2  Elements  of  Psychology,  J.  N.  Baldwin. 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES  TO   READING  19 1 

sential  that  the  teacher  have  a  definite  notion  of  the  char- 
acter of  these  experiences,  and  how  best  to  draw  upon  them. 
He  must  distinguish  sharply  between  the  function  of  racial 
experiences,  or  instincts,  and  the  function  of  personal  ex- 
periences, the  elements  of  which  are  gained  through  the 
senses. 

An  Appeal  to  the  Instincts  is  Worth  While.  —  Hereditary 
control,  or  instinct,  is  an  animal's  inherited  organization 
for  converting  native  impulse  into  personal  experience. 
Through  the  functioning  of  his  instincts  the  child  draws 
upon  his  environment  for  his  personal  welfare.  He  in- 
stinctively cries  and  his  physical  needs  are  supplied.  In- 
stinctively he  is  curious  about  things  and  his  curiosity  im- 
pels him  to  examine  them  closely.  He  babbles  and  imi- 
tates and  thereby  acquires  a  rich  stock  of  percepts.  He 
compares  and  discriminates  and  thus  attains  concepts 
or  general  truths.  BubbHng  over  with  curiosity  and 
inquisitiveness,  the  child  presents  himself  unfettered  by 
social  custom,  to  the  care  of  the  school.  Primarily,  the 
first  duty  of  the  school  is  to  familiarize  him  with  written 
symbols,  increase  his  oral  vocabulary,  and  enrich  his  ex- 
periences. The  extent  to  which  this  is  accomplished  and 
the  way  in  which  it  is  done  mark  the  success  or  failure  in 
primary  method. 

Native  curiosity  and  inquisitiveness  must  be  drawn  upon 
in  full  measure  if  learning  to  read  is  what  it  should  be. 
Written  symbols  furnish  little  variety  in  themselves  and 
soon  become  uninteresting.  How  can  interest  be  sustained 
in  the  mastery  and  interpretation  of  symbols? 

Expert  Knowledge  in  Primary  Reading.  —  The  history  of 
effort  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  is  the  history  of 
primary  method  in  reading.     Some  of  the  attempts  are 


192  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

the  alphabet  method,  the  word  method,  the  sentence 
method,  the  phonic  method,  including  specific  action  and 
dramatization.  Each  of  these  so-called  methods  in  read- 
ing has  been  abandoned  or  retained  on  the  basis  of  motiva- 
tion. Before  attempting  to  judge  each  of  these  methods 
in  terms  of  motivation  it  is  well  to  understand  the  end  to 
which  it  is  employed. 

Mark  of  Successful  Methods.  —  The  child's  energy  is 
exercised  in  acquiring  both  content  and  form.  Any  method 
that  is  successful  in  one  should  not  be  evaluated  in  terms 
of  the  other.  It  is  just  such  practices  that  create  meaning- 
less controversies  and  that  tend  to  emphasize  devices  until 
they  are  popularly  spoken  of  as  "  methods." 

Motivating  Factors  in  Primary  Reading 

Since  the  child  has  a  rich  stock  of  experiences  on  enter- 
ing school,  let  us  consider  those  devices  that  are  effective 
in  teaching  him  a  written  vocabulary.  At  first  children 
express  their  ideas  orally.  These  in  turn  are  given  written 
expression.  In  a  short  time  a  number  of  written  symbols 
will  have  been  introduced,  which  the  children  have  not 
mastered.  An  automatic  repetition  of  these  symbols  is 
often  resorted  to  by  the  teacher  with  poor  results.  It  is 
pretty  well  established  that  mere  repetition  without  new 
associations  availeth  little.  This  work  must  be  motivated. 
To  this  end  the  rhythmic  instinct  may  be  effectively  em- 
ployed. 

The  Rhythmic  Instinct.  —  The  child  by  nature  is  rhyth- 
mical. Because  of  this  innate  tendency  symbols  couched 
in  rhythmic  form  are  readily  acquired.  A  jingle  of  sev- 
eral verses  can  be  memorized  in  a  ten-minute  recitation. 
These  words  are  readily  recalled  when  needed.     Therein 


APPLICATION   OF   PRINCIPLES   TO  READING  193 

lies  the  secret  of  this  motivating  device.  When  words 
found  in  the  jingle  are  not  recognized  elsewhere  the  child 
has  recourse  to  two  sources  of  help  —  the  teacher  and  the 
jingle.  If  he  draws  upon  the  former  he  becomes  dependent ; 
if  on  the  latter  he  learns  to  help  himself,  and  thus  develops 
the  spirit  of  independence  and  self-activity,  both  of  which^ 
stimulate  mental  growth.  Thus  the  rhyme  through  its 
instinctive  appeal  becomes  an  effective  device  in  furnishing 
a  real  motive  for  habituating  written  symbols  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  school. 

Systems  of  Phonograms.  —  The  so-called  ''phonic 
method"  is  another  device  for  helping  the  child  help  him- 
self, and  though  it  has  no  instinctive  basis,  it  makes  such 
a  strong  appeal  to  the  independent  spirit  of  the  child  that 
it  supplies  a  real  motive  in  primary  reading.  It  becomes 
harmful  only  when  it  is  made  an  end  rather  than  a  means. 
In  the  introduction  of  written  symbols  it  is  not  wise  to 
begin  with  phonics  since  such  a  procedure  places  form  be- 
fore content.  Phonograms  should  not  be  learned  until  the 
child  has  proceeded  far  enough  in  the  interpretation  of 
symbols  to  realize  vaguely  the  value  of  phonograms  in  the 
mastery  of  the  mechanics  of  these  symbols. 

In  the  acquisition  of  both  words  and  phonograms  the 
spirit  of  emulation  should  be  appealed  to.  Phonograms 
and  rhymes  will  stimulate  all  of  the  children  some  of  the 
time  and  some  of  them  all  of  the  time.  Neither  will  create 
a  deep  interest  in  all  of  the  children  all  of  the  time.  Other 
stimulating  devices  should  be  employed.  Opportunity  for 
rivalry  should  be  given  in  habituating  these  arbitrary 
forms.  Let  one  child  contest  with  another  in  repeating 
the  most  words,  reading  the  most  sentences,  pronouncing 
the  most  phonograms.     Teams  of  various  kinds  may  be 


194  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

organized  and  operated  effectively  to  add  interest  to  this 
otherwise  uninteresting  work. 

Over-emphasis  of  Phonograms  Results  in  Short- 

ClRCUITING 

Meaning  of  Short-Circuiling.  —  Constant  drill  upon 
phonograms  and  words  to  which  the  teacher  of  primary 
reading  resorts,  too  frequently  results  in  the  short-circuit- 
ing of  oral  and  written  symbols.  Children  easily  acquire 
the  habit  of  associating  sounds,  instead  of  ideas,  with 
written  symbols.  In  the  language  of  Hamlet  they  learn 
to  read  ' '  words ,  words ,  words . "  To  break  up  this  pernicious 
habit  and  at  the  same  time  sustain  interest  is  a  serious 
problem.  So  far  as  we  know  no  device  has  been  employed 
as  yet  which  is  so  effective  in  correcting  this  defect  as  that 
of  dramatization.  Its  effectiveness  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  its 
instinctive  character.  The  instinctive  basis  supplies  the 
motive,  and  the  character  of  the  appUcation  produces  mental 
alertness. 

Two  Phases  of  Dramatization 

Action  Reading. — As  usually  employed  dramatization 
should  be  subdivided  into  what  is  popularly  called  action 
reading  and  into  dramatization  proper.  Action  reading  is  a 
simple  device  for  forcing  the  child  to  get  ideas  instead  of 
sounds  from  written  symbols.  By  this  method  the  teacher 
directs  her  children  through  written  symbols  and  they  re- 
spond in  terms  of  some  sort  of  activity.  The  pencil  "  tells  " 
John  to  close  the  door,  to  walk  to  the  window,  to  stand,  to 
sit,  to  run  around  the  room,  etc.  To  recite  means  to  inter- 
pret. There  is  no  chance  for  deception.  To  fail  means 
more  humihation  than  does  the  failure  to  produce  oral 


APPLICATION  OF   PRINCIPLES  TO  READING  195 

words.  The  ingenious  teacher  can  devise  games  based  upon 
the  experiences  of  the  child  and  in  this  way  insure  a  high 
degree  of  interest  in  the  interpretation  of  the  printed  page. 

Dramatization.  —  In  the  latter  part  of  the  first  year  and 
throughout  the  remainder  of  the  primary  grades,  interest 
may  be  enhanced  by  means  of  dramatization  proper.  Por- 
tions of  a  constantly  accumulating  vocabulary  become  more 
or  less  heavy  and  obscure,  thus  partially  obscuring  the 
thought,  dulHng  the  imagination,  and  retarding  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  child  for  his  work.  The  setting  of  problems 
for  the  children  to  solve,  approval  of  good  interpretation, 
high  marks  and  other  common  devices  will  stimulate  the 
better  children  to  increased  effort.  However,  they  do  not 
affect  seriously  those  who  are  lost  in  the  vagueness  and  un- 
certainty of  words.  It  is  at  this  point  that  dramatization 
becomes  a  most  effective  device  for  improving  the  work. 

Motivating  Aspect  of  Dramatization.  —  Dramatic  ex- 
pression is  as  old  as  the  race.  Man  expressed  his  ideas 
by  means  of  natural  symbols  for  ages  before  conven- 
tionalized symbols  were  employed.  The  persistence  of 
the  dramatic  instinct  down  to  the  present  time  is  manifest 
when  foreigners  are  forced  to  express  themselves  in  a 
strange  tongue.  Because  of  its  strong  instinctive  tendency 
dramatization  supplies  a  powerful  motive  force  for  the 
teaching  of  primary  reading,  history,  literature,  geography, 
and  nature-study.  However,  the  effectiveness  of  dramati- 
zation depends  upon  the  method  of  employing  it.  It 
should  be  used  as  a  means  to  an  end  and  not  as  an  end  in 
itself. 

By  assigning  to  the  different  children  of  the  class  parts 
in  the  story  to  be  dramatized,  before  the  story  has  been 
studied  in  class,  one  increases  the  child's  responsibility 


196  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

many  fold.  By  this  method  one  imposes  upon  the  child 
a  part  to  play  and  he  knows  not  how.  The  only  possible 
source  of  information  is  the  story  itself.  Possibly  it  has 
never  occurred  to  him  before  that  these  pages  of  written 
symbols  have  a  real  message  for  him.  In  order  to  get  the 
desired  information  he  is  forced  to  scrutinize  the  symbols 
carefully.  He  must  think  of  the  symbols  in  terms  of  ideas. 
He  must  feel  as  his  character  felt,  and  act  as  his  character 
acted.  By  this  simple  device  the  teacher  is  enabled  di- 
rectly to  stimulate  children  to  desire  the  real  meaning  of  a 
page,  the  study  of  which  was  largely  perfunctory  before. 

Examples  of  This  Method.  — ^  A  single  example  will  amplify 
this  thought.  The  children  are  permitted  to  dramatize 
Goldenlocks  and  the  Three  Bears.  The  little  girl  who 
is  to  play  the  part  of  Goldenlocks  does  not  know  what  to 
do.  She  is  told  that  the  book  will  tell  her.  The  added 
responsibility  incites  her  to  find  out  what  the  story  says. 
From  the  very  nature  of  the  case  she  is  forced  to  image 
the  situation,  to  see  the  separate  chairs,  one  for  the  "papa 
bear,"  one  for  the  "mamma  bear,"  and  one  for  the  "baby 
bear."  Likewise  she  must  image  the  bed  of  each  of  these 
wonderful  bears.  She  must  understand  the  actions  of  the 
three  bears  and  the  motives  that  prompted  them. 

Dramatization  as  a  device  for  motivating  primary  work 
needs  little  or  no  paraphernalia,  no  curtained  stage,  and 
no  extra  time  for  long  and  efficient  drill.  Indeed,  when 
dramatization  is  made  an  end  in  itself,  it  not  only  ceases 
to  be  a  device  for  motivating  reading,  but  in  all  proba- 
bility becomes  positively  harmful  to  children.  The  results 
of  such  training  are  contrary  to  our  whole  scheme  of  educa- 
tion. If  modern  education  stands  for  anything,  it  is  that 
form  is  a  tool  for  the  conveyance  of  thought.     When  form  be- 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES  TO  READING  1 97 

comes  over-emphasized  it  results  in  superficiality.  A 
single  dramatic  presentation  if  highly  specialized  may 
establish  insincere  ideals  that  will  continue  in  the  life  of 
the  adult. 

Telling  the  Story  a  Motivating  Device.  —  Another  effective 
device  in  the  teaching  of  reading  is  that  of  having  one 
child,  chosen  at  random,  re-tell  the  story  read  by  the 
class.  The  certainty  that  some  one  will  be  called  upon 
increases  responsibihty  and  thus  intensifies  concentration 
during  the  reading  period.  The  desire  of  the  child  to  re- 
late the  story  to  the  others  in  the  class  is  an  instinctive 
tendency  akin  to  the  strutting  instinct.  The  opportunity 
to  tell  the  story  becomes  a  strong  motive  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  presentation  of  the  lesson.  Few  teachers  make  the 
most  of  this  device.  The  best  effort  that  we  have  known  in 
third-grade  reading  was  largely  stimulated  by  its  use. 

In  addition  to  its  motivating  power  in  reading,  this 
device  serves  as  a  useful  plan  for  the  improvement  of  oral 
language.  Language  lessons  usually  fall  short  because  of  a 
lack  of  effective  devices  for  inducing  natural  expression. 
The  ''telling  of  the  story"  is  interesting  enough  to  en- 
courage a  fine  choice  of  words  with  which  to  express  it. 

Use  of  Pictures.  —  Pictures  are  also  motivating  factors  in 
primary  reading.  The  "picture  book"  is  the  delight  of  all 
children.  Nothing  can  be  more  convincing  of  the  worth- 
whileness  of  pictures  than  the  beautifully  illustrated  readers 
for  the  primary  grades.  The  modern  reader  is  in  many 
ways  a  work  of  art.  Indeed,  the  greatest  contribution  to 
elementary  reading  in  the  past  fifteen  years  is  in  the  field 
of  illustration.  So  sensitive  have  we  become  to  the  value 
of  pictures,  both  as  motivating  factors  and  as  a  cultural 
force,  that  in  some  cases  we  have  adapted  our  language  to 


198  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

the  picture,  rather  than  to  the  responsive  attitude  of  the 
child.  This  oversight  on  the  part  of  some  textbook  writers 
does  not  condemn  the  picture,  but  on  the  contrary  reveals 
the  fact  that  illustrations  have  proven  so  helpful  as  a  means 
that  they  are  made  an  end  by  some  over-enthusiastic  ad- 
vocates of  the  cultural  school. 

Suitable  Reading  Materials 

Former  Source  of  Reading  Materials.  —  The  character 
of  the  story  itself  is  in  many  respects  the  most  significant 
motivating  factor  in  primary  reading.  Until  recently, 
subject-matter  in  reading  was  handed  down  from  above. 
Primary  reading  bore  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  the 
classics  that  the  high-school  course  of  ten  years  ago  bore 
to  the  university  courses.  In  the  latter  case  the  uni- 
versity imposed  upon  the  high  school  the  elements  of  sub- 
jects that  were  pursued  in  college.  The  result  was  that 
in  many  cases  the  subject-matter  made  little  appeal  to  the 
secondary  student,  since  it  did  not  relate  closely  enough 
to  his  interests  except  when  he  had  planned  for  himself  a 
professional  career. 

Reading  for  children  has  undergone  a  similar  meta- 
morphosis. The  classics  were  handed  down  through  the 
grades,  varying  only  in  difficulty  of  technique.  By  the 
time  the  work  was  outhned  for  the  upper  grades  there  re- 
mained but  a  mere  remnant  for  the  lower  grades.  Fortu- 
nately our  more  recent  writers  have  recognized  in  part 
that  the  child  is  the  first  consideration  in  the  selection  of 
primary  reading  matter.  They  have  recognized  what 
President  G.  Stanley  Hall  pointed  out  a  number  of  years 
ago,  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  child  to  recapitulate 
the  life  of  the  race.     Consequently  the  short,  disconnected 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES  TO   READING  199 

sentences  of  the  old  first  reader  have  been  displaced  by 
the  jingle  and  the  mythical  story. 

The  Instinctive  Basis.  —  The  rhythmic  instinct  and  the 
innate  tendencies  of  wonder,  make-beheve,  and  fancy 
give  a  glowing  interest  to  jingles  and  myths  in  the  first 
two  grades.  The  mythical  story,  merging  into  stories  of 
animals  and  especially  heroic  animal  stories,  furnishes  in- 
teresting materials  for  the  third  and  fourth  grades.  The 
heroic  story  and  biographies  of  heroes  are  best  adapted  to 
pre-adolescent  children.  The  pity  of  it  is  that  we  need  to 
use  stories  of  this  character  that  are  couched  in  language 
so  difficult  that  much  of  the  interest  is  lost  in  an  effort  to 
master  it.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  we  still 
depend  upon  the  stories  of  chivalry  for  these  grades.  The 
consequence  is  that  many  of  the  words  are  unfamiliar 
because  they  have  no  modern  significance.  What  the 
intermediate  grades  need  most  of  all  just  now  is  some 
reputable  heroic  stories  couched  in  twentieth  century 
language  which  is  simple  enough  for  the  children  to  readily 
comprehend. 

While  there  are  still  many  defects  in  our  reading  ma- 
terials, they  are  infinitely  superior  to  those  of  a  generation 
ago ;  and  while  the  millennium  is  still  far  off,  it  would  be 
brought  much  nearer  if  theory  and  practice  were  properly 
united.  Many  of  us  are  so  old-fashioned,  so  conservative, 
so  imitative,  that  we  Hke  readers  modeled  after  the  good 
readers  of  our  own  school  days.  It  is  hard  to  secure  the 
publication  of  reading  materials  based  entirely  upon 
pedagogic  principles,  since  they  will  not  sell  sufficiently  to 
justify  their  pubHcation. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

APPLICATION    OF   PRINCIPLES   TO   PRIMARY   ARITHMETIC, 
WRITING,   AND   SPELLING 

Origin  of  Methods  in  Arithmetic.  —  Many  of  our  so- 
called  methods  in  arithmetic  are  but  partial  truths  elabo- 
rated out  of  all  proportion.  The  result  is  that  much  of  our 
primary  arithmetic  has  been  one-sided,  unnatural,  and 
uninteresting.  For  example,  Pestalozzi's  notion  that 
number  concepts  should  be  built  up  from  sense  contact 
with  objects  —  a  theory  that  has  materially  influenced 
our  practice  —  though  true,  by  no  means  represents  all 
the  truth.  It  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  native 
interest  of  the  child,  which  is  indeed  an  important  con- 
sideration. As  Dewey  has  pointed  out,  the  application  of 
the  unit  in  measurement,  because  it  affords  opportunity 
for  movement  and  because  it  relates  more  directly  to  the 
child's  natural  experiences,  is  vastly  more  interesting  to 
children  than  the  observation  of  cubes,  rectangles,  pyra- 
mids, and  the  like,  advocated  so  strenuously  by  the  Swiss 
reformer. 

Notable  Features  in  Textbooks.  —  The  most  notable 
features  of  primary  books  in  arithmetic,  excluding  the 
absence  of  obsolete  subjects,  are  the  attempts,  first,  to 
present  subject-matter  in  such  a  way  as  to  develop  mathe- 
matical concepts  inductively ;  and  secondly,  to  present 
topics  in  the  cyclic,  or  psychological,  way.     Both  of  these 


ARITHMETIC,    WRITING,   AxND    SPELLING  20I 

methods  employed  in  primary  arithmetics  are  a  decided 
concession  to  the  rights  of  the  child  in  the  learning  process. 
Mathematical  concepts  through  the  measuring  process  arc 
gradually  developed  without  the  child  being  conscious  of  the 
fact  that  the  teacher  has  purposely,  though  pleasantly, 
helped  him  to  acquire  new  and  useful  concepts.  Ideas 
of  the  perimeter  and  area  of  rectangles  are  developed  as  a 
by-product  through  the  solving  of  practical  problems  in 
which  the  child  measures  walls,  yards,  and  gardens  for  the 
purpose  of  estimating  the  amount  of  paper,  sod,  and  seeds 
needed  respectively  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  problem. 
These  problems  appeal  to  his  experience  and  thus  stimulate 
effective  effort.  Such  problems  are  but  means  to  an  end 
in  the  acquisition  of  mathematical  concepts. 

Motivating  Factors  in  Primary  Arithmetic 

An  Initial  Device  for  Creating  Motive.  —  "  Keeping  score" 
in  the  Httle  games  initiated  by  the  teacher  beautifully 
stresses  the  intrinsic  function  of  arithmetic.  Here  for  the 
first  time  the  child  feels  a  real  need  for  written  arithmetic. 
He  wants  his  side  to  win  and  for  that  reason  he  has  an  im- 
pelling desire  to  master  the  tools  which  control  the  situation. 
Bean  bags  or  walnuts,  and  a  waste-basket  are  all  the  ma- 
terials required  to  initiate  this  game.  The  teacher  ap- 
points two  captains  who  choose  sides.  Each  member  of 
a  team  when  his  turn  comes  pitches  four  bags  at  the  basket. 
Each  captain  keeps  score  for  his  team.  When  all  have 
pitched  the  teacher  asks  for  the  results.  This  stimulates 
computation  in  earnest.  At  first  only  a  few  will  fully 
comprehend  what  is  being  done.  Some  bright  pupil  will 
add  the  two  columns  of  scores,  compare  the  sums,  and  if  his 
side  has  won  will  probably  begin  to  clap  his  hands ;   if  he 


202  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

loses,  he  will  look  abashed.  After  the  result  is  compre- 
hended the  game  is  continued  as  before. 

Keeping  Store.  —  Keeping  store  makes  a  strong  appeal 
to  the  interests  of  pupils.  It  relates  to  their  home  ex- 
periences and  makes  a  keen  appeal  to  their  curiosity.  The 
financial  factor  has  made  store  articles  forbidden  fruit. 
Freed  from  this  economic  restraint  by  the  use  of  paper 
money,  the  child's  desire  for  investment  runs  rampant. 
The  necessity  of  accounting  for  his  investment  develops 
a  sense  of  the  intrinsic  function  of  arithmetic  and  lays  the 
foundation  for  habits  of  the  fundamentals. 

The  greatest  weakness  in  this  phase  of  primary  method 
in  arithmetic  lies  in  the  lack  of  a  graded  series  of  projects 
capable  of  being  extended  over  a  long  period. 

Use  of  the  Cycle.  —  The  psychological,  or  cyclic,  method 
of  presenting  arithmetical  topics  rather  than  the  logical 
method  has  made  for  greater  interest  in  arithmetic.  The 
topical  method  ignores  the  fact  that  the  various  arith- 
metical topics  depend  more  or  less  upon  each  other  and 
consequently  an  attempt  to  master  one  topic  thoroughly, 
before  considering  others,  deprives  the  child  of  knowledge 
that  is  needed  in  the  mastery  of  the  first  topic  considered. 
Then,  again,  such  a  procedure  ignores  the  fact  that  ability 
to  understand  depends  upon  maturity,  both  in  the  sense 
of  experience  and  in  the  sense  of  natural  development. 
While  the  native  ability  and  natural  experiences  of  a  child 
of  ten  or  eleven  enable  him  to  understand  some  of  the 
elements  of  percentage  or  of  mensuration,  they  by  no  means 
quaHfy  him  to  understand  these  subjects  sufficiently  to 
meet  the  demands  that  will  later  be  made  upon  him. 

Persons  who  object  to  the  cyclic  method  do  so  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  teacher  to  follow  con- 


ARITHMETIC,   WRITING,   AND   SPELLING  203 

sistently.  For  example,  the  teacher  of  the  seventh  grade 
when  considering  percentage  is  not  quite  sure  what  ex- 
periences the  child  has  had  in  this  subject  in  previous  grades. 
The  course  of  study  should  reveal  this,  but  better  still  the 
child  should  reveal  it.  If  he  does  not  it  is  evident  that 
a  review,  at  least  upon  the  fundamentals  of  the  subject, 
is  essential  to  further  work.  Progressive  ideas  in  arithmetic 
method  have  suffered  more  perhaps  than  in  any  other 
subject  with  the  exception  of  grammar.  This  is  probably 
due  to  the  tradition  that  has  been  persistent  here.  The 
exactness  of  these  subjects  has  made  them  less  adaptable 
to  the  needs  of  the  child  and  has  made  it  more  difficult  for 
the  teacher  to  lay  aside  the  method  of  her  own  school  days 
and  adopt  one  different  in  form  and  structure. 

Problems  Should  Precede  Drill.  —  Excesses  in  primary 
arithmetic  usually  result  in  one  of  the  following  practices : 
Either  too  much  consideration  is  given  to  drill  exercises 
upon  the  four  fundamentals  at  the  expense  of  problem- 
solving,  or  problem-solving  is  given  major  consideration 
with  the  thought  that  skill  in  the  fundamentals  will  come 
as  a  by-product.  A  "middle  of  the  road"  policy  is  better 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils.  A  strong  lead  with  prob- 
lems which  grow  out  of  the  child's  needs,  followed  by 
supplementary  drill  exercises  properly  stimulated  by  in- 
stinctive appeals,  brings  the  best  results.  These  processes 
are  complemental,  not  supplemental,  to  each  other.  The 
one  tends  to  strengthen  the  other. 

Accuracy  and  Speed.  —  Accuracy  and  speed  are  assured 
only  by  reducing  these  processes  to  automatic  reaction. 
Recent  tests  given  in  the  Training  School  at  Normal, 
Illinois,  show  conclusively  that  there  is  a  close  correlation 
between  accuracy  and  speed.     These  tests  indicate  that  a 


204  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

number  combination  that  is  habitual  is  worth  more  to  the 
possessor  than  one  which  must  have  conscious  direction. 

To  the  extent  that  fundamentals  are  habituated  in  the 
early  grades  one  can  feel  assured  that  energy  will  be  con- 
served in  the  higher  processes  of  the  upper  grades.  Free 
the  child  from  the  drudgery  that  results  from  inefficient 
preparation  in  the  fundamentals  and  you  have  added 
materially  to  his  power  and  interests.  Again,  accuracy 
in  the  fundamental  processes  insures  success,  and  success 
is  in  itself  a  strong  stimulating  factor. 

Since  the  child  is  largely  a  creature  of  impulse  —  of 
instinct  —  his  native  reactions  must  be  drawn  upon  to  in- 
tensify the  personal  experiences  that  the  school  sees  fit  to 
create.  As  these  personal  experiences  increase  and  thus 
form  the  basis  for  other  experiences,  they  should  be  ap- 
pealed to.  The  problem,  often  in  the  form  of  the  indirect 
question,  is  an  effective  device  for  stimulating  thought. 
It  is  so  because  it  is  a  natural  one.  From  the  time  the 
child  began  to  creep  until  he  arrived  at  the  school  he  had 
been  solving  problems  because  he  found  gratification 
in  so  doing.  This  gratification  arose  partly  from  the 
desire  to  know  and  partly  because  of  the  social  approval  it 
afforded. 

Success.  —  We  must  not  retard  this  problem-solving 
tendency  by  withholding  social  approval  in  the  school- 
room. It  is  a  positive  motivating  force.  Strong  students 
usually  receive  sufficient  approval.  The  teacher  who 
understands  the  importance  of  social  approval  as  a  motivat- 
ing factor  in  the  solving  of  the  problems  of  the  school  will 
avail  himself  of  every  opportunity  to  encourage  the  children 
by  manifesting  appreciation  of  every  worthy  efifort,  es- 
pecially of  those  who  are  less  fortunate  than  their  fellows. 


ARITHMETIC,   WRITING,   AND   SPELLING  205 


Reduction  of  Processes  to  Conserve  Energy 

The  Austrian  methods  of  subtraction  and  division  com- 
mend themselves  to  practical  school  men  because  they 
reduce  the  number  of  processes  to  be  learned.  Though 
these  methods  may  never  become  general  in  America, 
they  are,  nevertheless,  based  upon  good  psychology.  The 
reduction  of  four  processes  to  two  by  the  method  of 
elimination,  provided  this  reduction  is  adequately  done, 
conserves  energy. 

The  following  forms  indicate  the  procedure  necessary  to 
conserve  energy. 

Austrian  Method  of  Subtraction. —  The  solution  of  the  problem  _, 

should  be  read  :   5  and  4  are  9.     (The  4  should  be  written  when  read.) 

The  solution  of  the  problem  _  „  should  be  read :    7  and  8  are  1 5 

(the  8  should  be  written  when  the  number  15  is  read),  5  and  8  are  13, 
I  and  I  are  2. 

Method  of  "Carrying."  —  Use  of  the  method  of  "carrying"  em- 
ployed above  is  comprehended  by  the  pupil  if  the  teacher  keeps  in 
mind  and  makes  clear  to  the  pupil,  ist,  that  the  difference  is  found 
by  adding  and  not  by  subtracting;  2d,  that  the  minuend  (in  the 
new  process)  is  the  smn  obtained  by  collecting  the  (subtrahend  and 
the  difference)  two  addends. 

The  problem  _       should   cause   no   trouble   when   the   following 

35 

form  is  used  to  explain  the  process : 

29 

35    is  read  9  and  5  are  14 ;  3  and  3  are  6.    The  pupil  will  be  able 
64     to  see  that  the  same  process  is  involved  when  the  sum  is  written 
above  the  addends  as  when  written  below  the  addends. 


206  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

Since  the  pupil  is  required  to  add  down  the  column  when  finding  the 
difference  it  is  desirous  that  he  add  down  the  column  when  finding  the 
sum. 

Austrian  Method  of  Division.  —  The  approach  to  this  solution  should 
be  a  multiplication  approach.  One  should  think  constantly  in  terms 
of  multiplication. 

352 


In  the  solution  of  this  problem  one  should  proceed  as 
follows:  3X24  is  72;  5X24  is  120;  2X241548.  The  sub- 
tractions involved  should  be  thought  in  terms  of  addition 
as  explained  above. 


24)8448 

72 

124 

120 

48 


An  Analysis  of  the  Writing  Problem 

Intrinsic  Function  of  Writing.  —  The  intrinsic  aims  of 
the  teaching  of  writing  in  the  public  schools  are  :  a  relatively- 
high  degree  of  legibility,  speed,  freedom,  and  ease  of  move- 
ment. It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  diagnose  the 
writing  of  her  room  in  order  to  determine  the  relative 
merit  of  the  qualities  referred  to  above. 

Application  of  a  Writing  Scale.  —  The  degree  of  legi- 
bility may  be  determined  roughly  by  means  of  standardized 
scales,  such  as  the  Ayres  ^  and  the  Thorndike  scales,^  or 
more  analytically,  by  means  of  the  Freeman  Scales.^  A 
consistent  legibility  of  seventy  per  cent  on  the  Ayres  scale 
produced  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  words  per  minute 
should  be  sufl&cient  evidence  that  the  pupils'  time  may 
be  better  employed  at  some  other  work  than  at  special 
exercises  in  writing. 

*  Haiidwriting  Scale,  Ayres.     Russell  Sage  Foundation,  N.  Y. 
^  Handwriting  Scale,  Thorndike.    Teachers  College,  N.  Y. 
'  Teaching  of  Handwriting,  Freeman.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 


ARITHMETIC,   WRITING,   AND   SPELLING  207 

Form  of  Movement  and  Quality  of  Writing  Habit 

Freedom  and  ease  of  movement  depend  primarily  upon 
the  form  of  movement  employed  and  the  quahty  of  habits 
established.  Fortunately  there  is  a  pretty  common  agree- 
ment as  to  the  form  of  movement  which  should  be  employed 
and  as  to  the  laws  which  are  fundamental  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  habits  required. 

Muscular  Movement.  —  Relative  to  the  form  of  move- 
ment, Professor  Freeman  says :  "The  arm  movement  with 
rest  —  the  so-called  muscular  movement  —  seems  likely 
to  become  practically  universal  in  American  Schools  within 
twenty-five  years."  This  movement  is  adaptable  to  any 
of  the  common  slants  and  meets  the  needs  of  any  of  the 
so-called  systems  of  writing  now  "touring"  the  country. 

By  far  the  biggest  problem  in  writing  is  still  unsolved 
after  slant,  alinement  of  letters,  and  form  of  movement 
have  been  determined.  The  problem  yet  unsolved  is  that 
of  reducing  the  proper  writing  movements  to  habit. 

Psychic  Principles  Involved  in  Writing 

Fundamentally,  habit-forming  in  writing  is  not  different 
as  a  teaching  process  from  habit-forming  in  other  subjects. 
It  differs  merely  in  detail  and  emphasis. 

A  Disagreement  among  Writing  Masters.  —  The  greatest 
disagreement  and  consequently  the  most  discussion  have 
resulted  from  the  application  of  the  first  law  in  habit-forma- 
eion  to  the  teaching  of  writing  habits.  There  is  a  disa- 
greement as  to  what  the  attention  should  be  focused  upon 
at  the  beginning  of  the  process. 

The  Visual  Percept.  —  Writing  teachers  have  generally 
maintained  that  a  visual  percept  of  the  desired  form  is  a 


208  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

necessary  prerequisite  to  movement  in  writing.  To  this  end 
correct  forms  have  been  prepared  for  the  pupils,  and  devices 
have  been  constructed  which  make  it  possible  to  keep  these 
forms  constantly  before  them  during  the  writing  period. 

This  belief  has  also  been  the  source  of  many  of  our  so- 
called  systems  of  writing.  SHght  differences  in  the  form 
of  the  letters  and  variations  in  the  drill  exercises  have 
constituted  the  essential  differences  in  the  "systems"  and 
"methods"  which  the  uninitiated  refer  to  with  pride. 

The  Montessorian  Method 

The  Muscular  Percept.  —  Montessori  was  the  first  to 
question  seriously  the  potency  of  the  visual  percept  in  the 
establishment  of  the  fundamental  habits  of  writing.  She 
Maintained  instead  that  the  writing  movement  depends 
upon  muscular  percepts.  These  she  maintained  are  most 
economically  formed  through  controlled  letter  movements 
by  means  of  grooved  letters.  This  forces  muscular  control 
and  eliminates  an  enormous  amount  of  waste  occasioned 
by  the  chance  variation  resulting  from  an  attempt  to  ex- 
press the  visual  percepts. 

By  this  means  Montessori  has  obtained  marvelous  re- 
sults. It  is  never  safe,  however,  to  evaluate  a  method  with- 
out eliminating  the  teacher,  since  great  teachers  get  as- 
tonishing results  with  almost  any  method.  There  are 
other  experiences  which  seem  to  corroborate  the  Montes- 
sorian inference.  Muscular  control  of  mechanical  devices 
for  manipulating  machinery,  the  adaptation  of  one's  body 
or  position  to  the  furniture,  to  the  saddle,  and  to  other 
situations  where  specific  adaptations  are  made  by  es- 
tablishing automatic  reactions,  seem  to  corroborate  the 
theory  of  the  muscular  percept. 


ARITHMETIC,    WRITING,    AND    SPELLING  209 

Since  the  Montessorian  method  has  scarcely  affected  the 
schools  of  America  we  need  concern  ourselves  only  with  the 
habits  involved  in  ordinary  writing. 

Application  of  the  Formal  Steps  to  the  Teaching 
OF  Writing 

Focalizing  the  attention  upon  the  thing  to  be  habituated 
is  the  first  conscious  step  in  the  teaching  of  habits.  It 
appHes  to  the  teaching  of  writing  also.  It  involves  a  close 
scrutiny  of  the  form,  slant,  and  alinement  of  the  letters 
in  the  copy  and  of  the  position  required  to  produce  the 
movement  needed.  Personal  demonstration  and  guidance 
by  the  teacher  at  the  outset  will  prevent  the  undoing  of 
many  half-formed  habits  in  writing.  Once  the  letter  to  be 
made  and  the  movement  required  to  produce  it  are  clearly 
visualized,  the  next  step  is  needed. 

The  second  step,  that  of  creating  initiative,  according 
to  James,  is  the  test  of  the  successful  teaching  of  writing. 
To  this  end,  Rowe  points  out  that  the  teacher  should  re- 
gard the  whole  Ust  of  instincts  as  a  keyboard  upon  which 
he  is  to  work  out  the  harmonious  reactions  essential  to  good 
writing.  Enthusiasm  should  be  generated  sufficiently  to 
propel  repeated  and  thrice  repeated  movements  until  the 
form  is  satisfactory  and  the  movement  habituated. 

A  single  shot,  though  it  bring  down  the  object  sought, 
is  but  a  slight  indication  of  shooting  skill,  since  the  law  of 
chance  is  always  operative.  Nine  clay  pigeons  out  of  ten 
is  necessary  to  win  the  respect  of  sportsmen.  A  single 
ball  over  the  home  plate  with  a  good  quality  of  curve  and 
speed  will  in  no  wise  insure  the  sender  a  position  in  a 
National  League  game.  Consistency  in  either  case  is 
necessary  to  ultimate  success.     But  consistency  in  shooting 


2IO  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

and  in  playing  ball  comes  only  after  multitudinous  efforts, 
made  possible  and  endurable  by  an  abundance  of  en- 
thusiasm and  unyielding  determination. 

What  is  true  in  the  sports  is  true  in  the  formation  of 
correct  habits  of  writing.  Success  in  writing  depends  upon 
one's  ability  to  maintain  an  abundance  of  enthusiasm  in 
order  that  consistency  of  effort  be  sustained  until  the  habit 
is  formed.  Repetition  in  and  of  itself  may  amount  to 
very  little.  Indeed,  it  may  be  as  harmless  in  writing  as  in 
ethics,  unless  it  be  repetition  of  the  right  sort.  A  high 
degree  of  continuous  interest  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
maintain  drill  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  insure  the 
proper  habit. 

The  effect  of  repetition  in  writing  varies  from  zero  to  a 
high  degree  of  success.  It  all  depends  upon  the  conscious 
effort  expended  in  this  third  step  in  habit  formation. 
Too  frequently,  practice  in  writing  is  little  more  than 
mere  perfunctory  routine  which  fixes  bad  habits  as  per- 
sistently as  it  establishes  new  ones.  Much  of  the  dead 
wood  of  learning  is  in  the  so-called  lifeless  drills.  An  ap- 
peal to  the  instincts  must  be  made  until  a  wholesome  en- 
thusiasm is  established. 

A  frequent  measurement  of  the  quality  of  the  hand- 
writing in  a  room  by  means  of  a  standard  scale  is  wonder- 
fully motivating.  Children  like  to  work  when  their  progress 
is  measured.  They  have  little  incentive  when  it  is  not. 
It  is  quite  common  for  a  grade  to  raise  its  average  quality 
from  forty  per  cent  and  forty-five  per  cent  to  sixty-five 
per  cent  and  seventy  per  cent,  in  three  or  four  months  under 
the  inspiration  of  frequent  measurements. 

The  setting  aside  of  one  school  day  each  spring  to  be 
known  a.s  handwriting  day  is  a  great  impetus  to  writing. 


ARITHMETIC,   WRITING,   AND    SPELLING  211 

The  growth  indicated  in  the  improvement  of  the  various 
grades  should  be  displayed  both  by  samples  and  charts. 
It  offers  an  opportunity  for  the  pupils  of  the  school  to 
compare  the  work  of  the  several  rooms  and  to  get  the 
inspiration  such  a  comparison  affords. 

The  prevention  of  exceptions,  or  fourth  step  in  methods 
of  handwriting,  is  best  secured  by  keeping  up  a  high 
degree  of  interest.  The  mechanical  device  of  moving  the 
unwritten  line  up  to  the  copy  when  the  preceding  line  is 
completed  should  aid  in  this  particular.  The  constant 
attention  of  the  teacher  is  required  at  this  juncture  to 
maintain  a  high  degree  of  efficiency. 

The  Spelling  Problem  Analyzed 

Influence  of  Reformers.  —  Spelling,  Hke  reading,  has  been 
the  victim  of  the  intellectuahzer  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
habit  former  on  the  other.  There  has  been  a  steady  swing 
of  the  pendulum  back  and  forth  between  these  two  classes 
of  spelling  reformers.  Judging  from  the  literature  that 
has  been  put  upon  the  market  in  the  past  fifteen  years,  there 
is  to  be  quite  a  Httle  vibrating  of  the  spelling  needle  be- 
fore it  comes  to  rest  upon  the  zero  mark. 

Rice's  Contribution.  —  In  the  April  Forum  of  1897,  ^^• 
J.  M.  Rice  submitted  his  findings  on  spelling,  which  were 
continued  in  the  June  number  of  the  same  magazine. 
After  culling  over  an  extensive  amount  of  material  he  ar- 
rived at  the  strange  conclusion  that  "In  learning  to  spell 
maturity  is  the  leading  factor,  while  method  plays  only  a 
subordinate  part."  He  says,  "There  is  no  direct  relation 
between  method  and  results."  This  is  certainly  a  strong 
indictment,  and  one  that  should  challenge  the  attention 
of  teachers  of  method.     He  thinks  that  variation  in  results 


212  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

depends  upon,  first,  maturity ;  and  second,  upon  the 
ability  of  the  teacher.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  how- 
ever, as  Cornman  points  out,  he  advocates  a  daily  drill  of 
at  least  fifteen  minutes  and  recommends  the  teaching  of 
rules  which  have  wide  application  and  few  exceptions. 

Commands  Contribution.  —  In  1902,  Dr.  OHver  P.  Corn- 
man  issued  a  monograph  from  the  psychological  laboratory 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  on  spelling  efficiency. 
He  arrived  at  conclusions  very  similar  to  those  of  Dr.  Rice 
so  far  as  method  in  teaching  spelling  is  concerned.  Re- 
ferring to  the  value  of  teaching  spelhng,  he  says,  "The 
conclusion,  therefore,  is  forced  upon  us  that  a  method  of 
teaching  spelling,  the  suspension  of  whose  operation  for 
three  years  is  not  plainly  manifested  in  such  a  series  of 
tests  [as  he  gave],  is  of  so  little  importance  as  to  be  prac- 
tically negligible."  His  further  conclusions  are:  "It  is 
therefore  advisable  in  view  of  the  economy  of  time,  to  rely 
upon  the  incidental  teaching  of  spelhng  to  produce  a 
sufficiently  high  average  result."  The  conclusions  of  Rice 
and  Cornman  have  done  much  to  distribute  responsibility 
for  spelling  to  the  various  school  subjects  and  to  cause  in 
many  schools  a  discontinuance  of  the  separate  spelling 
lessons  or  drills. 

Waitings  Contribution.  —  Nine  years  after  Cornman  made 
his  report  upon  spelling  another  monograph  on  spelling 
came  forth,  and  strangely  enough  it  came  from  a  laboratory 
of  clinical  psychology  —  this  time  from  Dr.  J.  E.  Wallace 
Wallin  of  the  New  Jersey  state  village  for  epileptics.  Re- 
ferring to  Rice's  and  Cornman's  conclusions  relative  to  the 
efficiency  of  spelling  methods,  he  says,  "These  conclusions 
fly  directly  in  the  face  of  the  results  of  tests  by  other  in- 
vestigators —  Newman,    Abbott,    Krantz,    Charters,    and 


ARITHMETIC,    WRITING,    AND    SPELLING  213 

those  carried  on  in  the  Milwaukee  and  Cleveland  schools." 
After  calling  attention  to  the  splendid  results  obtained  in 
the  two  cities  mentioned  above,  by  systematic  drill,  he 
says,  "Obviously  the  above  facts  do  not  warrant  the 
assertion  that  method  in  the  teaching  of  spelling  is  merely 
an  incidental  detail,  nor  do  they  lend  support  to  the  con- 
tention that  modern  pedagogy  demands  the  substitution 
of  the  incidental  for  the  drill  method,  as  advocated  by 
Cornman." 

Application  of  Rules.  —  It  will  be  remembered  that 
Rice  advocated  a  few  rules  in  the  teaching  of  spelling. 
Many  texts  and  many  teachers  of  spelling  have  used  rules 
freely  in  the  teaching  of  spelling  before  and  since  that 
time.  To  test  the  efficiency  of  rules  in  this  connection, 
W.  A.  Cook,  a  fellow  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  carried 
on  a  series  of  tests  with  academic  students  and  with  college 
freshmen.  After  gi^'ing  the  details  of  his  findings  he 
concluded  that  rules  in  the  teaching  of  spelling  are  not 
effective  unless  in  the  hands  of  an  exceptional  teacher. 
He  says,  "The  writer  does  not  believe  that  a  single  rule 
which  he  tested  demonstrated  its  efficiency,  excepting,  the 
rule  that  applies  to  words  ending  in  'ie'  which  is  changed 
to  'y'  when  adding  the  suffix  'ing'  —  a  rule  without  ex- 
ceptions." He  continues  in  the  following  language:  "It 
is  at  least  evident  that  rules  for  spelling  do  not  teach  them- 
selves; that  thoroughness  of  digestion  demands  that  they 
be  given  in  widely  separated  doses,  and  that  they  must 
be  introduced,  if  at  all,  in  the  elementary  school  during 
the  habit-forming  period.  The  presumption  is  even  then 
against  a  favorable  outcome  except  with  a  superior  teacher." 

The  results  of  an  experiment  carried  on  in  the  Training 
School  at  Normal,  Ilhnois,  substantiates  Cook's  conclusions 


214  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

SO  far  as  they  refer  to  rules  of  a  relatively  limited  applica- 
tion. Statements  from  persons  considering  themselves 
good  spellers  also  corroborate  Cook's  conclusions  as  to 
the  efficiency  of  rules. 

Results  of  Investigation.  —  Two  splendid  results  have 
come  from  all  these  investigations  in  spelling :  First,  the 
early  investigations  in  spelling  by  Rice  and  Cornman  led 
directly  to  the  research  work  which  has  culminated  in  the 
objective  standards  that  are  proving  of  great  educational 
value.  Second,  they  have  been  directly  responsible  for 
the  investigations  of  the  spelling  vocabularies  of  the  children 
in  the  several  grades,  by  Jones  and  others.  Jones's  investi- 
gation alone  in  this  particular  is  an  epoch-making  piece  of 
work.^ 

The  old  lists  of  words  retained  in  the  spelling  archives 
for  generations  are  being  revised.  Words  which  do  not 
have  vital  significance  to  pupils  are  ehminated  and  those 
of  which  the  child  is  in  daily  need  are  used.  If  the  spelUng 
revolution  has  accompHshed  nothing  more  than  a  re- 
vision of  the  spelling  lists,  it  has  been  well  worth  while.     . 

Simplified  Spelling  Received  a  Strong  Impetus 

The  simplified  spelling  movement  secured  a  strong  im- 
petus from  the  spelling  revolution.  The  ultimate  effect 
of  this  movement  upon  spelling  cannot  be  foretold  as  yet. 
The  fact  that  it  is  firmly  supported  by  many  persons  of 
distinction  and  ability  indicates  that  many  of  the  in- 
tricacies of  words  gradually  but  surely  will  be  removed. 
This  movement  will  not  down  for  long.  Succeeding 
waves  will  be  stronger  than  those  which  preceded  them 

^  The  Child's  Own  Speller,  Jones. 


ARITHMETIC,   WRITING,   AND   SPELLING  215 

until  a  decided  improvement  in  the  structure  of  many  of 
our  common  English  words  prevails. 

Best  Methods  of  Teaching  Spelling  Still  in  Doubt.  —  On 
the  method  side,  the  results  have  not  been  so  satisfactory. 
There  is  plenty  of  evidence  to  show  that  there  exists  a 
decided  disagreement  over  methods  of  teaching  spelling. 
Students  of  spelling  are  divided  mainly  into  two  camps, 
those  who  beheve  in  rationalizing  the  spelling  process  by 
means  of  rules,  and  those  who  consider  spelling,  in  the  main, 
an  ideo-motor  performance,  subject  to  the  same  laws  as 
writing  and  the  mechanics  of  reading.  The  marvelous 
results  of  drill  secured  in  the  Cleveland  schools  by  Hicks ; 
the  findings  of  WalHn,  Cook,  and  others ;  the  uncertainty 
of  rules  by  good  spellers ;  and  the  general  tendency  to  re- 
vert to  the  old-time  spelhng  match,  growing  out  of  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  inefficiency  of  our  spelling  —  all  tend  to 
corroborate  the  belief  that  spelling  should  be  reduced  to  the 
lower  nerve-centers,  so  to  speak,  and  that  an  abundance  of 
highly  intensified  drills  are  essential  to  secure  this  result. 

Application   of   the   Laws   of   Habit   Formation   to 
THE  Teaching  of  Spelling 

Proper  focalization  in  spelhng  in  the  first  stages  means 
rationalization.  It  means  an  understanding  of  the  con- 
tent of  the  words  found  in  a  famihar  context.  In  the  case 
of  words  of  many  syllables,  it  implies  marked  attention  to 
these  syllables ;  in  the  case  of  homonyms,  it  means  the 
mastery  of  one  and  a  sharp  comparison  of  the  second  with 
the  first.  It  signifies  everything  that  gives  the  child  a 
clearer  visual,  auditory,  and  muscular  percept  of  the  word 
to  be  learned.  Here  as  in  writing  it  consists  of  more  than 
the  intellectual  process.     There  must  be  enthusiasm,  de- 


2l6  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

termination,  and  a  passion  for  winning.  As  in  writing, 
a  play  upon  the  instincts,  if  rightly  conducted,  will  bring 
excellent  results.  It  is  in  this  stage  of  the  process  that 
good  teaching  is  easiest  distinguished  from  poor.  Many  a 
race  is  lost  in  sight  of  the  goal.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  spelling  race.  Persistent  and  attentive  repetition 
is  an  earmark  of  good  method  in  teaching  spelling  also. 
It  is  the  factor  that  distinguished  the  spelling  of  a  genera- 
tion ago.  It  is  an  essential  factor  yet.  The  teaching  of 
spelling  incidentally  does  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
third  factor  in  habit  formation. 

Frequent  testing  by  means  of  standardized  tests  will 
stimulate  the  pupils  to  greater  concentration  and  will 
guarantee  a  higher  degree  of  success.  It  is  an  important 
factor  in  preventing  exceptions,  also,  and  should  therefore 
aid  materially  in  the  growth  of  spelling  ability. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
STANDARDS  FOR  MEASURING  RESULTS  OF  TEACfflNG 

General  Meaning  of  Efficiency.  —  At  present  our  peda- 
gogical literature  bristles  with  the  term  "  efficiency."  Even 
writers  of  ability  use  it  extravagantly.  The  term  itself 
seems  to  satisfy.  It  suggests  the  shop,  the  factory,  and  the 
salesroom  where  performances  are  judged  in  terms  of  the 
concrete  and  where  definite  standards  are  blocked  out  in 
open  competition.  It  apparently  pacifies  the  longing  for 
scientific  accuracy  and  generates  a  feeling  of  confidence  in 
him  who  sets  it  up  for  his  goal. 

Unfortunately  the  teaching  profession  in  the  main  has 
adopted  efficiency  as  its  slogan  without  making  adequate 
provision  for ' determining  when  it  is  attained.  Until  the 
spokesmen  for  the  profession  can  in  a  very  simple  and  in  a 
very  practical  way  point  out  the  meaning  of  efficiency  as 
it  relates  to  specific  attainment  and  can  give  explicit  di- 
rections for  obtaining  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  by  this 
or  that  sort  of  teaching,  the  term  "efficiency"  must 
remain  more  or  less  platitudinous. 

Measurement  of  Efficiency  in  the  Industries.  —  In  the 
industries  the  ability  of  the  performer  is  easily  measured, 
since  the  products  of  his  labor  are  objective,  concrete,  and 
readily  subjected  to  comparative  tests.  The  efficiency  of 
the  blacksmith  is  measured  by  the  length  of  time  the  shoe 

217 


2l8  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

clings  to  the  hoof  and  by  the  degree  of  comfort  it  gives  the 
horse.  The  efficiency  of  a  dentist  is  measured  by  the  length 
of  time  the  filHng  remains  in  order  or  by  the  permanence 
and  comfort  of  the  bridge  he  has  made.  The  efficiency  of  a 
gardener  is  determined  by  the  number  and  quality  of 
vegetables  produced  per  unit  of  area.  In  any  case  when 
the  result  is  better  than  that  ordinarily  produced  the 
performer  is  thought  of  as  having  superior  abihty,  and  con- 
sequently he  is  considered  relatively  efficient. 

Subjectively  considered,  efficiency  is  the  ability  to  produce 
superlative  results  consistently.  The  median  or  average  of 
all  the  abilities  in  a  select  group  is  a  desirable  standard  to 
use  in  an  endeavor  to  determine  the  merit  of  individual 
performances.  In  the  industrial  and  scientific  fields  such 
standards  are  well  known.  In  the  teaching  profession 
we  have  just  begun  to  use  them  advantageously. 

Legal  Aspect  of  Standards.  —  With  the  single  exception  of 
the  minimum  knowledge  requirement,  which  is  generally 
provided  by  law,  there  is  no  other  legally  accepted  standard 
for  judging  teaching  efficiency.  The  wide  and  varied  use 
of  standards  employed  in  determining  the  ability  of 
teachers  is  notorious. 

The  far-reaching  significance  of  the  conditions  resulting 
from  the  application  of  dissimilar  standards  is  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  those  who  evaluate  the  teaching  process 
in  terms  of  local  and  personal  standards.  There  is  not  a 
little  evidence  to  substantiate  the  opinion  that  subnor- 
mahty,  retardation,  disinterestedness,  disobedience,  and 
withdrawals  from  school  are  the  direct  result  of  the  in- 
adequate standards  held  by  administrators  and  teachers. 
Until  some  of  the  standards  now  employed  in  measuring 
the  results  of  the  teaching  process  are  discarded  and  others 


STANDARDS   FOR   MEASURING  RESULTS  219 

are  materially  modified,   the  proportion  of  abnormalities 
occurring  in  the  schools  will  not  be  changed  materially. 

Classification  of  Standards  of  Measurement 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  standards  now  employed 
in  determining  the  merit  of  teaching.  These  may  well  be 
called  subjective  standards  and  objective  standards.  The 
former  are  notions  of  the  relative  merit  of  a  performance. 
These  notions  may  be  imitated  ;  they  may  be  implicit  de- 
ductions from  insufficient  and  poorly  evaluated  individual 
experiences ;  or  they  may  be  a  priori  in  origin.  It  is  certain 
that  no  two  persons  have  the  same  subjective  standard. 
The  latter  consists  of  the  median  or  average  accomplish- 
ment expressed  in  accepted  units,  such  as  per  cent,  of  a 
widely  distributed  yet  carefully  selected  group. 

Subjective  Standards 

This  class  of  standards  is  in  the  main  the  outgrowth  of 
an  attempt  on  the  part  of  teachers,  administrators,  and 
patrons  to  judge  the  results  of  teaching  in  terms  of  opinion 
or  in  terms  of  data  highly  colored  by  opinion  and  personal 
prejudices. 

Many  subjective  standards  were  generally  introduced  in 
the  early  stages  of  educational  development  and  are  still 
employed  by  persons  unfamiliar  with  the  science  of  measur- 
ing the  results  of  teaching.  The  value  of  some  of  these 
standards  has  been  confirmed  by  educational  experts. 
The  importance  of  these  standards  consists  mainly  in  stim- 
ulating an  analysis  of  the  process  and  in  gi\dng  valuable 
direction  to  teaching.  They  are  not  valuable  as  standards 
of  merit. 


220  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   (iOOD   TEACHING 

Pupil-Community  Attitude.  —  This  standard  is  too  fre- 
quently used  by  school  officials  in  determining  the  merit 
of  their  teachers.  If  the  children  and  the  community  are 
fond  of  a  teacher  it  is  assumed  that  he  is  giving  splendid 
service  in  the  classroom.  If  he  is  not  generally  popular 
it  is  taken  for  granted  that  he  is  giving  poor  service.  Doubt- 
less this  standard  was  developed  in  and  about  the  private 
school,  and  especially  the  subscription  school  where  the 
teacher  ''boarded  around."  Under  such  conditions  adapta- 
bility was  the  prime  requisite  of  survival.  In  spite  of  the 
wonderful  growth  in  the  science  of  teaching  there  still 
exists  in  some  communities  the  notion  that  popularity 
is  an  index  of  efficiency. 

It  is  reasonably  certain  that  a  teacher  of  character  and 
of  fine  teaching  ability  will  win  the  respect  and  usually 
the  admiration  of  his  pupils  and  patrons.  It  is  quite  as 
reasonably  certain  that  a  relatively  inferior  teacher  may 
and  not  infrequently  does  win  the  esteem  and  hearty  sup- 
port of  the  entire  community  in  which  he  teaches.  This 
esteem  may  result  from  local  political  activity,  church  con- 
nections, participation  in  club  activities,  or  it  may  be 
in  response  to  a  wholesome  attitude  of  the  teacher  towards 
the  life  of  the  community,  all  of  which  may  be  excellent 
supplementary  quaUties  for  a  teacher  to  possess.  Cer- 
tainly they  should  not  be  the  main  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  a  teacher. 

Being  a  "good  fellow"  is  an  enviable  human  trait,  but 
it  has  no  legitimate  place  among  the  basic  standards  with 
which  to  determine  the  worth  of  teachers.  The  social  and 
personal  qualities  of  the  officers  of  a  bank  do  not  become  an 
incentive  to  one  with  money  to  deposit  until  the  standing 
of  the  bank  and  the  integrity  of  the  officials  have  been 


STANDARDS   FOR   MEASURING   RESULTS  2  21 

ascertained.  The  hearty  greeting  and  the  talkative  pro- 
pensities of  a  barber  do  not  become  an  inducement  to 
one  to  patronize  his  shop  until  one  has  determined  the 
fine  quality  of  his  razor  and  the  sanitary  practices  of  his 
establishment.  No  thoughtful  parent  will  let  church 
connections,  social  prestige,  poUtical  affihations,  or  friend- 
ship of  long  standing  be  the  predominating  factor  in  the 
choice  of  a  physician  for  his  dangerously  sick  child.  Cer- 
tainly there  are  stronger  reasons  why  these  supplemental 
and  most  desirable  qualities  should  not  be  considered  basic 
in  the  selection  of  a  teacher. 

Grades  and  Promotions.  —  Another  common  and  widely 
used  standard  of  judging  teaching  efficiency,  and  one 
closely  related  to  the  above,  is  that  of  grades  and  pro- 
motions. It  is  passing  strange  that  this  standard  of  measure- 
ment should  be  rehed  upon  so  extensively.  A  parent 
usually  thinks  his  children  well  taught  if  they  receive 
high  grades.  He  is  quite  as  strongly  convinced  of  the 
teacher's  inferiority  if  his  children  fail  of  promotion.  In 
view  of  recent  investigations  in  respect  to  the  rehability 
of  grades  as  an  index  of  actual  achievement,  this  standard 
is  a  travesty  upon  the  science  of  education.  A  grade  as 
ordinarily  determined,  to  say  the  least,  is  the  expression 
of  a  conglomerate  impression  which  may  be  colored  by  a 
single  performance  of  the  pupil,  by  his  general  attitude 
towards  the  school,  by  the  emotional  attitude  of  the 
teacher,  or  by  the  personal  relations  which  exist  between 
teacher  and  pupil  or  between  the  teacher  and  the  family 
of  the  pupil. 

Grades  vary  in  proportion  to  the  variation  in  personal 
standards.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  an  easy- 
going teacher  is  more  likely  to  give  high  grades  than  is  the 


22  2  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

teacher  who  is  excessively  conscientious  and  diligent  in  an 
endeavor  to  improve  the  standing  of  his  pupils.  It  not 
infrequently  happens  that  the  grades  of  two  chums,  or  of 
two  children  whose  famihes  are  intimate,  are  adjusted  from 
month  to  month  so  that  first  one  pupil  and  then  the  other 
ha?  the  higher  grade.  It  is  notorious  that  good  children 
receive  higher  grades  in  proportion  to  their  ability  than  do 
mischievous  children.  Other  influences  well  known  to  the 
profession  are  factors  in  determining  grades.  The  multi- 
plicity of  factors  involved  in  grade-making  is  a  strong 
indictment  of  the  practice  of  judging  teachers  exclusively 
or  even  partially  on  the  basis  of  the  promotion  Hst. 

Classroom  Technique.  —  The  value  of  this  standard 
rests  on  the  assumption  that  there  is  a  close  correlation 
between  the  character  of  the  stimuli  employed  by  the 
teacher  and  the  character  of  the  child's  controls  which  re- 
suit  from  the  use  of  such  stimuli. 

On  the  basis  of  this  assumption  one  proceeds  to  de- 
termine a  teacher's  efficiency  by  an  examination  of  her 
classroom  technique.  The  following  items  are  usually 
considered  in  such  procedure :  (i)  forms  of  presenting 
subject-matter,  such  as  the  lecture  method,  the  textbook 
method,  the  developing  method,  including  a  combination 
of  one  or  more  of  these  methods ;  (2)  the  character  of  the 
question  employed  —  the  direct  question,  indirect  question, 
elliptical  question,  and  the  leading  question;  (3)  the  sort 
of  other  devices  used  —  illustrations,  drawings,  field  trips, 
concrete  materials  for  science  work,  pictures,  and  maps ; 
(4)  the  language  of  the  teacher,  his  intonation,  the  board 
work,  the  general  appearance  of  the  classroom,  and  es- 
pecially the  spiritual  atmosphere  of  the  room. 

This  standard  is  decidedly  more  reliable  than  either  of 


STANDARDS   FOR   MEASURING   RESULTS  223 

those  previously  considered.  It  finds  justification  in  the 
common  agreement  that  the  majority  of  teachers  who  get 
splendid  results  employ  a  good  technique.  In  fact,  teachers 
of  this  type  find  technique  indispensable.  It  is  in  har- 
mony also  with  certain  generally  accepted  psychological 
principles.  However,  technique  is  not  of  itself  a  sufficient 
guarantee  of  adequate  results,  because  of  the  large  number 
of  variables  introduced  in  its  application.  The  value 
of  a  device  depends  in  large  measure  upon  the  experiences, 
judgment,  temperament,  zest,  clearness  of  vision,  physical 
energy,  and  high  ideals  of  the  teacher.  Without  these 
attributes  in  their  proper  proportion,  technique  is  the 
lifeless  movement  of  school  machinery ;  with  them  it  is  a 
dynamic  force  which  produces  accuracy,  effectiveness, 
consistency,  and  the  proper  distribution  of  time  and  energy. 

The  Reactive  Attitude  of  the  Child.  —  In  discussing  the 
relative  merit  of  this  standard  with  that  of  the  preceding 
one,  F.  M.  McMurry  says :  ^  "Teachers,  supervisors  of 
teachers,  and  authors  of  books  on  teaching  have  been  so 
intently  observant  of  the  procedure  of  the  teacher  that  they 
have  overlooked  that  of  the  pupil.  Yet  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  school  lies  in  the  pupil,  and  what  he  himself 
finally  does  determines  the  value  of  the  teacher's  efforts. 
He  therefore  should  be  the  primary  object  of  considera- 
tion rather  than  the  teacher,  and  the  quality  of  the  in- 
struction should  be  judged  mainly  in  terms  of  his  activity." 

In  conformity  with  this  notion  McMurry  formulated  the 
following  criteria  for  the  measuring  of  teaching  efficiency  :  ^ 
(i)  motive  on  the  part  of  the  child ;  (2)  consideration  of 
values  by  the  pupils ;  (3)  attention  to  organization  by 
the  pupils ;   (4)  initiative  by  the  pupils. 

^  Elementary  School  Standards.    World  Book  Company. 


224  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD   TEACHING 

The  superiority  of  this  standard  over  those  previously 
mentioned  is  at  once  apparent.  It  strikes  right  at  the 
heart  of  the  learning  process,  or  as  Tompkins  would  put 
it,  at  the  spiritual  unity  of  the  child.  The  author  of  the 
above  criteria  not  only  believes  in  the  theory  that  "the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  school  lies  in  the  pupil,"  but  he 
applies  this  theory  daily  in  his  classroom. 

As  principles  of  direction  the  above  criteria  are  all  that 
is  desired.  They  force  an  analysis  of  the  teaching  process, 
and  suggest  the  proper  distribution  and  emphasis  of  the 
teaching  agencies.  They  are  basic  to  our  whole  scheme  of 
pedagogy.  To  abandon  the  principles  underlying  these 
criteria  would  be  to  ignore  teaching  as  a  profession. 

Though  indispensable  as  an  agency  for  the  i?nprovement 
of  teaching,  these  criteria  are  decidedly  inadequate  as  a 
means  of  determining  the  relative  merit  of  teaching.  Their 
inadequacy  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  character  of  their 
application  depends  entirely  upon  the  judgments  of  those 
who  attempt  to  determine  the  merit  of  teaching.  The 
necessity  of  interpretation  introduces  a  decided  variable. 

The  decisions  of  several  judges  as  to  the  merits  of  a 
certain  recitation  will  vary  in  proportion  to  the  variation  in 
their  experiences  and  insight.  What  may  seem  to  be 
"motive  on  the  part  of  the  child,"  to  one  observer,  may 
appear  as  excessive  emotion  to  another.  Indications  of  a 
"consideration  of  values,"  to  one  judge,  may  appear  as  a 
wanton  neglect  of  essentials  to  another.  "Attention  to 
organization,"  to  another  observer,  may  impress  his  as- 
sociates as  being  a  mere  juggling  of  facts.  Indeed,  what 
may  seem  to  one  critic  as  "initiative  of  the  pupils"  may 
appear  to  another  as  rampant  individualism.  Just  as  the 
jury  is  an  uncontrollable  variable  in   the  machinery  of 


STANDARDS    FOR    MEASURING   RESULTS  225 

justice,  so  the  supervisor  as  a  personal  judge  of  teaching 
efficiency  is  a  variable  that  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
reckon  with  in  the  application  of  the  McMurry  criteria. 

Guides  and  Unstandardized  Scales.  —  Numerous  guides 
and  scales  have  been  developed  of  recent  years  for  estimat- 
ing the  work  of  teachers.  These  are  valuable  to  the  super- 
visor in  that  they  force  analysis  of  the  teaching  act  and 
thereby  make  it  possible  for  him  to  determine  the  relatively 
strong  and  weak  points  in  the  recitation,  and  aflford  an 
opportunity  for  him  to  give  the  teacher  some  practical  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  improvement  of  methods. 

The  following  "ten-point  scale"  is  somewhat  typical  of 
helps  of  this  sort. 

Ten-Point  Scale  for  Estimating  Classroom  Work  in  High 

Schools  ^ 

I.     "Setting"  of  class  topics  in  the  course. 

II.     Mastery  of  intellectual  content  and  eflfective  logical  organiza- 
tion of  materials. 

III.  The  mechanics  of  classroom  management.     Economy  of  time 

and  grasp  of  pedagogical  technique. 

IV.  Effective  emphasis  upon   the  mental  processes  and  values 

peculiar  and  essential  to  the  subject. 
V.     Independence  of  teacher  and  class  as  a  growth  toward  their 

material. 
VI.     Suitability  to  the  pupil  of  the  type  of  recitation  employed. 
VII.     The  "common  sense"  factor. 
VIII.     Evidence  of  culture  versus  mere  erudition. 
IX.     Class  participation  and  class  sense  of  responsibility. 
X.     Class  respect  for  learning. 

Scales  of  this  sort  do  not,  however,  materially  assist 
the    supervisor    in    judging    teaching    efficiency.     In    the 

^  A  tentative  scale  prepared  by  the  late  Professor  Charles  Hughes  John- 
ston of  the  Universitj'  of  Illinois  in  conjunction  with  the  Principals'  Club 
which  he  founded. 


226  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

application  of  this  scale,  as  in  the  application  of  the 
McMurry  standards,  a  marked  variable  is  introduced  in 
the  judge  who  applies  it.  Furthermore,  the  points  are 
not  of  equal  significance.  Some  of  these  points  are  several 
times  more  significant  than  others.  Two  teachers  of 
widely  different  abilities  when  measured  by  this  scale  may 
receive  the  same  numerical  mark.  One  may  be  stronger 
in  the  essentials ;  the  other,  stronger  in  the  non-essentials. 
Even  if  the  relative  value  of  each  point  were  determined, 
the  former  objection  holds. 


CHAPTER   XV 
GROWTH  AND  APPLICATION   OF   OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS 

Classes  of  Objective  Standards.  —  Objective  standards  fall 
roughly  into  two  classes  :  standardized  scores  and  standard- 
ized scales.  A  standardized  score  is  the  median  score  of 
all  the  individual  scores  made  upon  a  carefully  graded 
test,  by  a  highly  selected  and  widely  distributed  group  of 
pupils.  For  example,  the  median  score  made  on  a  special 
test  in  arithmetic  by  eighth-grade  pupils  in  many  villages 
and  cities  of  several  states  is  a  standardized  score.  A 
standardized  scale  is  one  composed  of  a  graded  series  of 
pupils'  contributions  each  of  which  has  been  given  a  value 
relative  to  one  whose  value  has  been  arbitrarily  fixed. 
Usually  the  contribution  with  the  arbitrarily  fixed  value  is 
at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  scale. 

The  Ayres  Handwriting  Scale  is  a  standardized  scale. 
The  Thorndike  Drawing  Scale  and  the  Harvard-Newton 
Composition  Scales  are  standardized  scales  also.  These 
scales  were  determined  by  arbitrarily  fixing  the  value  of 
one  or  two  contributions  and  then  proportioning  the  other 
values  in  the  order  of  their  relative  merit. 

Objective  standards  generally  have  been  called  *' tests" 
or  "scales."  Since  a  "scale"  is  also  a  test,  it  is  evident 
that  "score"  is  more  descriptive  of  the  fact  than  "test." 
For  this  reason  the  classification  used  here  consists  of  scores 
and  scales,  respectively. 

227 


228  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

Origin  of  Objective  Standards.  —  Dr.  J.  M.  Rice  is  the 
father  of  objective  standards  in  America.  Zealous  for 
better  opportunities  for  the  child,  enthused  by  his  psy- 
chological studies  at  Jena  and  Leipsic,  free  from  preju- 
dices which  sometimes  result  from  a  limited  experience  in 
teaching,  he  set  for  his  task  the  exposition  of  certain  evils 
which  he  conceived  to  exist  in  the  pubhc  schools.  Conse- 
quently from  1 89 1  to  1896  he  became  a  critical  student  of 
education.  After  examining  the  schools  of  one  hundred 
American  cities,  he  pointed  out  in  the  columns  of  the 
Forum  what  seemed  to  him  to  be  remedial  measures  for 
the  schools  of  those  cities. 

After  four  years  of  constant  investigation  he  came  to  the 
very  decided  conviction  that  concerted  effort  towards  ob- 
taining satisfactory  results  in  pubHc  education  is  impossible 
until  it  is  known  what  satisfactory  results  are.  "If  we  do 
not  know,"  he  wrote  in  the  Forum,  December,  1896,  "what 
we  mean  by  satisfactory  results,  how  shall  we  be  able  with 
any  degree  of  intelHgence  to  judge  when  our  task  has  been 
satisfactorily  performed?  Until  we  come  to  a  definite 
understanding  in  regard  to  this  matter,  our  entire  edu- 
cational work  will  lack  direction  and  we  shall  continue, 
as  heretofore,  to  grope  our  way  along  passages  completely 
enveloped  in  darkness  in  an  endeavor  to  land  we  know  not 
where. 

"If  we  might  have  a  standard  which  would  enable  us  to 
tell  when  our  task  has  been  completed,  our  attention  might 
be  earnestly  directed  towards  the  discovery  of  short  cuts 
in  educational  processes.  For  want  of  such  a  standard 
each  individual  teacher  has  thus  far  been  a  law  unto  him- 
self;  permitted  to  experiment  on  his  pupils  in  accordance 
with  his  own  individual  educational  notions,  whether  in- 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS  229 

herited  from  his  grandfather  or  the  result  of  his  study  and 
reflection,  entirely  regardless  of  what  was  being  done  by 
others.  So  long  as  this  condition  is  possible  pedagogy 
cannot  lay  claims  to  recognition  as  a  science.  Until  an 
accurate  standard  of  measurement  [my  itaHcs]  is  recognized 
by  which  such  truths  may  be  discovered,  ward  politicians 
will  continue  to  wield  the  baton  and  educational  anarchy 
will  continue  to  prevail." 

Spelling  Standards 

The  First  Objective  Standards.  —  In  his  characteristic 
way  Rice  set  out  in  1896  to  establish  a  standard  of  measure- 
ment for  spelling.  He  undertook  personally  the  herculean 
task  of  examining  13,000  children  in  spelling.  This  in- 
vestigation extended  over  a  period  of  sixteen  months  and 
included  sixteen  American  cities. 

The  children  were  tested  on  a  list  of  words,  on  words 
given  to  them  in  sentences,  and  on  the  words  used  in  their 
compositions.  The  tabulated  results  in  the  Forum  for 
April,  1897,  is,  so  far  as  I  have  discovered,  the  first  ob- 
jective standard  in  spelKng  or  in  any  other  subject.  The 
list  of  words  standardized  by  him  consists  of  too  few  words 
to  be  of  service  in  judging  the  spelling  abilities  of  children. 
The  list  of  words  presented  in  sentences  is  subject  to  the 
same  criticism.  This  objection  does  not  hold  for  his  com- 
position test.  Had  he  estimated  the  per  cent  of  words 
correctly  spelled  in  the  compositions  on  the  basis  of  the 
number  of  different  words  used,  instead  of  upon  the  basis 
of  the  entire  number  of  words  used,  he  would  have  estab- 
lished the  first  practical  objective  standard.  As  it  is,  his 
per  cents  of  words  correctly  spelled  are  entirely  too  high. 

Commands  Spelling  Standard.  —  Dr.  O.  P.  Cornman  of 


230  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

Philadelphia,  stimulated  by  the  work  of  Rice,  carried 
on  a  series  of  tests  in  spelling  by  the  composition  method, 
extending  from  June,  1896,  to  June,  1898.  In  1903  he 
published  the  results  of  this  investigation  in  a  volume  en- 
titled Spelling  in  the  Elementary  School.  Though  Corn- 
man's  data  were  carefully  gathered  and  methodically 
tabulated,  the  results  which  he  obtained  were  little  more 
satisfactory  than  those  of  Rice,  in  that  he  counted  all 
words  in  the  composition  and  determined  the  ratio  of  the 
spelled  words  and  misspelled  words  in  terms  of  per  cent. 
He  not  only  counted  the  recurring  words  which  were 
spelled  correctly  but  the  recurring  misspelled  words  as 
well.  This  accounts  for  his  percentages  being  lower  than 
those  reported  by  Rice. 

The  work  of  Rice  and  Cornman  stimulated  many  young 
men  to  begin  work  in  educational  research.  Edward  L. 
Thorndike,  who  has  since  become  the  wizard  of  the  ob- 
jective standard,  wrote  in  the  Forum  in  1905  as  follows : 
"The  study  of  education  is  beginning  to  be  quantitative, 
we  are  becoming  properly  disgusted  with  the  one-sided 
booking  which  only  takes  account  of  dollars  spent  and 
neglects  the  debit  side,  the  income  in  knowledge,  habits, 
power,  zeal,  and  ideals.  This  ambition  toward  an  exact 
objective  measurement  of  the  results  of  educational  en- 
deavor is  a  symptom  of  healthy  scientific  fervor  and  also 
of  common-sense  wisdom.  No  one  possessed  of  science 
or  sense  will  deny  the  value  of  successful  quantitative 
study  of  school  work." 

Ayres^s  Spelling  Scale}  —  All  of  the  words  which  compose 
the  Ayres  Spelling  Scale  were  selected  on  the  basis  of  their 
frequency  in  the  letters  from  some  7000  children  in  eighty- 
1  Distributed  by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York  City. 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS  23 1 

four  widely  separated  cities,  in  newspaper  articles,  and  in 
selections  from  standard  literature.  The  manuscripts 
examined  aggregated  368,000  words  from  2500  different 
writers. 

The  one  thousand  words  most  frequently  used  were 
selected  for  the  Ayres  Spelling  Scale.  These  words  were 
grouped  into  fifty  lists  of  twenty  words  each.  The  dif- 
ficulty of  these  groups  was  tested  by  giving  them  to 
the  children  of  a  number  of  cities.  After  the  first  test 
the  words  were  regrouped  into  fifty  lists  of  twenty  words 
each  and  again  presented  to  the  children  of  the  grades. 

On  the  basis  of  these  two  tests  the  original  one  thousand 
words  were  arranged  into  twenty-six  groups.  The  system- 
atic arrangement  of  these  twenty-six  groups,  with  the 
difficulty  each  offers  expressed  in  per  cent,  constitutes 
the  well-known  and  popular  Ayres  Spelling  Scale. 
•  The  Buckingham  Spelling  Scale}  —  The  author  of  this 
scale  chose  fifty  words  from  five  spelling  books,  each  of 
which  was  found  in  at  least  two  of  the  spelling  books. 
These  words  were  arranged  into  two  lists  of  twenty-five 
each  by  means  of  a  statistical  method.  In  the  final  ar- 
rangement the  lists  are  consistently  progressive  in  diffi- 
culty from  the  third  grade  to  the  eighth.  The  relative 
difficulty  of  each  word  is  Hkewise  determined.  The  com- 
paratively few  words  employed  in  this  test  limits  its 
practical  value. 

Starch's  Spelling  Scale.^  —  Starch  has  a  spelling  scale 
which  is  composed  of  six  Hsts  each  of  which  contains  one 
hundred  words.  These  words  were  chosen  from  Webster's 
Nm)    International    Dictionary.     The    plan     consisted    of 

^  Prepared  by  Prof.  R.  B.  Buckingham,  University  of  Illinois. 
*  Prepared  by  Prof.  Daniel  Starch,  University  of  Wisconsin. 


232  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

choosing  the  first  defined  word  on  the  even-numbered  pages 
of  the  dictionary  and  of  the  arrangement  of  these  in  the 
order  of  the  number  of  letters  composing  them. 

Jones's  Spelling  Demons}  — -  Jones  has  Hsted  the  one 
hundred  words  which  he  found  most  frequently  misspelled 
by  children.  He  calls  this  group  the  "One  Hundred 
Spelling  Demons  of  the  English  Language."  Teachers  in 
the  upper  grades  should  drill  the  pupils  upon  these  words 
until  they  are  mastered. 

Method  of  Teaching  Word  Lists.  — ■  Good  sense  as  well  as 
good  method  prompts  one  to  determine  the  relative  dif- 
ficulty of  the  words  listed  for  the  term  or  year  by  giving 
to  the  class  without  previous  preparation  all  of  the  words 
listed.  These  words  should  then  be  arranged  in  the  order 
of  their  relative  difficulty.  The  relative  difficulty  of  the 
words  in  any  list  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  persons  who 
misspell  each. 

Writing  Standards 

Thorndike's  Handwriting  Scale.  —  The  first  satisfactory 
result,  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  of  all  the  agitation  for 
quantitative  standards  of  measurement  occurred  in  1910. 
In  that  year  Thorndike's  Scale  for  Judging  Handwriting 
appeared  in  the  Teachers  College  Record.  Referring  to 
this  scale,  Ayres  says,  ''The  credit  of  developing  the  first 
measuring  scale  for  handwriting  belongs  to  Professor 
Edward  L.  Thorndike  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  The  publication,  in  March,  1910,  of  his 
Handwriting  Scale  constituted  a  most  important  con- 
tribution not  only  to  experimental  pedagogy,  but  to  the 
entire  movement  for  the  scientific  study  of  education." 

*  Child's  Own  Spelling  Book,  Jones. 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  233 

In  reference  to  the  need  of  such  a  scale,  Thorndike  said  : 
"At  present  we  can  do  no  better  than  estimate  a  hand- 
writing as  very  bad,  good,  very  good,  or  extremely  good, 
knowing  only  vaguely  what  we  mean  thereby,  running  a 
risk  of  shifting  our  standards  with  time  and  only  by  chance 
meaning  the  same  by  a  word  as  some  other  student  of  the 
facts  means  by  it.  We  are  in  the  condition  in  which  the 
students  of  temperature  were  before  the  discovery  of  the 
thermometer,  or  any  other  scale  for  measuring  temperature 
beyond  the  very  hot,  hot,  warm,  lukewarm,  and  the  like,  of 
subjective  opinion." 

The  Thorndike  scale  is  composed  of  the  handwriting  of 
children  in  grades  five  to  eight  inclusive.  The  writing  from 
these  grades  was  grouped  into  eleven  groups  on  the  basis 
of  quality.  The  quality  of  the  groups  is  represented  by 
figures  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  and  17  respectively. 
QuaKty  7  represents  the  poorest  samples  taken  from 
grade  five,  and  quality  17  represents  the  best  samples 
taken  from  grade  eight.  The  steps  of  difference  between 
the  qualities  were  equal  in  the  sense  of  being  called  equal 
by  from  twenty-three  to  fifty-five  competent  judges. 
This  means  that  14  is  as  much  better  than  13  as  13  is 
than  12  ;  that  13  is  as  much  better  than  12  as  12  is  better 
than  1 1 ,  and  so  on  ;  that  quaHty  14  is  two  times  as  far  above 
zero  merit  in  handwriting  as  quality  7. 

The  scale  includes  quality  18,  which  was  taken  from  a 
copy  book,  and  qualities  4,  5,  and  6.  Samples  5  and  6 
were  taken  from  the  fourth  grade  and  sample  4  was  manu- 
factured for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  scale  below  the 
merit  of  fourth-grade  children. 

In  the  November  issue  of  the  Teachers  College  Record 
for  1 9 14,  Thorndike  presents  a  more  fully  developed  hand- 


234  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

writing  scale.  This  edition  is  in  many  respects  a  marked 
improvement  over  the  1910  edition.  The  wide  variation 
of  form  presented  in  this  standard  makes  it  exceedingly- 
valuable  in  evaluating  the  legibility  of  various  types  of 
handwriting. 

Teachers  who  habitually  think  of  quaHty  in  terms  of 
grades  can,  for  all  practical  purposes,  easily  transfer  the 
qualities  of  the  Thorndike  scale  into  grades,  by  multiplying 
the  numbers  of  the  scale  by  5.8.  Those  who  have  measured 
the  merit  of  handwriting  with  this  or  the  Ayres  scale  will 
not  be  content  to  judge  the  merit  of  writing  in  terms  of 
personal  experience. 

Ayres's  Handwriting  Standard.  —  In  November,  191 1, 
Leonard  P.  Ayres  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  began  a 
prehminary  experiment  to  determine  the  relative  legi- 
bility of  different  samples  of  handwriting.  He  early  con- 
cluded that  quality  of  legibility  is  measurable,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  perfect  a  writing  scale  with  that  in  mind.  His 
first  printed  scale  appeared  in  February,  191 2.  In  dis- 
cussing the  merits  of  this  scale  he  says:  "The  method  by 
which  the  present  scale  has  been  produced,  and  the  criterion 
on  which  it  rests  as  a  basis,  differ  radically  from  those 
adopted  by  Professor  Thorndike.  The  difference  in  the 
basis  is  that  in  the  present  case  legibihty  has  been  adopted 
as  a  criterion  for  rating  the  different  samples  in  place  of 
'general  merit'  used  as  the  basis  of  the  Thorndike  scale. 
The  change  substitutes  function  for  appearance  as  a  criterion 
for  judging  handwriting." 

Ayres  gathered  1578  samples  of  writing  from  forty  school 
systems.  The  samples  were  read  by  ten  readers,  each  of 
whom  by  means  of  a  stop  watch  recorded  the  exact  number 
of  seconds  required  to  read  each  sample.     The  samples 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS  235 

were  then  placed  in  eight  groups  on  the  basis  of  the  time 
required  to  read  them.  The  following  table  shows  the 
rating  of  a  type  sample  of  each  group. 

Table  I 

Point  on  Scale  Rating  in  Words  Read  per  Minute 

OF  Sample  Found  at  Each  Point 

90% .      209.2 

80% 202.7 

70% I95-I 

60% 186.2 

50% 175-7 

40% 163.4 

30% I49-I 

20% 132.2 

The  scale  was  divided  into  three  longitudinal  divisions 
on  the  basis  of  slant.  The  top,  or  A  division,  contains  the 
vertical  samples.  The  middle,  or  B  division,  contains  the 
samples  of  medium  slant,  and  the  lower,  or  C  division, 
contains  the  samples  of  extreme  slant.  As  implied  in  the 
above  table  the  scale  is  divided  into  eight  vertical  divisions, 
each  of  which  contains  a  sample  of  each  slant.  The  three 
samples  in  the  right  column  are  marked  90%,  those  in 
the  next  column  to  the  left  80%,  etc. 

Because  of  the  inclusion  of  samples  representing  the 
three  main  types  of  slant,  this  scale  is  easily  appHed.  The 
application  of  this  scale  to  the  handwriting  of  most  school 
systems  at  once  reveals  wide  variation  in  writing  abilities, 
which  imphes  either  widely  different  methods  of  teaching, 
widely  different  ideals  as  to  the  sort  of  writing  which  should 
obtain,  or  widely  different  degrees  of  zeal  towards  securing 
good  writing.  The  following  graph  (Fig.  i)  of  the  writing 
abilities  of  the  children  of  the  Training  School  of  the  Illinois 


236 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 


State  Normal  University,  as  snown  by  the  first  applicatiori 
of  the  Ayres  scale,  reveals  the  sort  of  variation  which  fre- 
quently exists  when  subjective  standards  alone  are  rehed 
upon. 


-f 


^\ 


? 


^\ 


^ 


i^ 


T 


/■y: 


I  V 


r-V 


^ 


77 


T^ 


^\ 


d- 


-7^ 


^ 


// 


-^ 


/ ./ 


'^^ 


^ 


/47 


:7 


\. 


W^ 


"^^ 


ZQ% 


30% 


HQ% 


50% 


60% 


70% 


m%- 


Fig.  I.  —  Graph  of  Writing  Abilities,  Thomas  Metcalf  Training 
Illinois  State  Normal  University. 


90%- 
School, 


4th  grade  Numbers  on  base  line  represent  the 

5th  grade  amount  of  ability  in  terms  of  per  cent. 

6th  grade  The  numbers  in  the  vertical  column 

7th  grade  indicate   the  number  of   such  abilities 

8th  grade  found  in  a  grade. 


The  first  application  of  the  scale  showed  that  there  were 
two  children  in  the  sixth  grade  who  wrote  better  than  any 
of  the  children  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  It 
showed  also  that  there  were  six  children  in  the  sixth  grade 
who  made  a  grade  of  70,  while  there  were  but  four  children 
in  both  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  who  reached  the  70 
mark.  This  test  makes  it  perfectly  evident,  on  the  one  hand, 
that  grades  five  and  six  needed  no  extra  consideration  rela- 


OBJECTRE   STANDARDS 


237 


tive  to  drill  in  writing,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  showed 
that  grades  seven  and  eight  needed  a  writing  revival. 

The  following  graph  (Fig.  2)  shows  what  was  accom- 
plished by  the  eighth-grade  teacher  after  he  became  con- 
scious of  the  relative  needs  of  his  pupils.     In  the  November 


~:^\ 


^^ 


-y' 


-X- 


/ 


^^ 


^ 


-^ 


y 


7^ 


/ 


-^^ 


■7' 


./ 


X 


\ 


-f- 


/ 


-X 


X. 


-7^ 


Xr 


-7^ 


s. 


7^ 


20% 


30% 


hO% 


50% 


60% 


70% 


90% 


Fig. 


•  Eighth  grade  abilities  in  handwriting  October  ro,  1918. 

. .  —  .  .  —  Abilities  of  the  same  eighth  grade,  May  8,  1919. 
Figures  on  the  base  line  represent  abilities  in  per  cent. 
The  figures  in  the  vertical  column  indicate  how  many  possess  such  abilities. 

test  fifteen  pupils  made  grades  of  40%  or  less ;  in  the  May- 
test  none  made  a  grade  less  than  50%.  In  the  November 
test  only  two  pupils  made  grades  of  70%;  while  in  the 
May  test  ten  pupils  made  grades  of  70%,  ten  pupils  made 
grades  of  80%,  and  three  pupils  made  grades  of  90%.  A 
careful  examination  of  Fig.  2  will  reveal  other  marked 
changes  which  resulted  from  an  application  of  the  hand- 
writing scale. 

The  Gettysburg  Edition  of  Ayres's  Handwriting  Scale}  — 
Numerous  changes  have  been  introduced  in  this  edition. 

^This  third  edition  of  the  Ayres   Handwriting   Scale  was  published  in 
191 7  by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


238  THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

The  specimens  are  all  on  ruled  paper.  The  slant  of  all 
specimens  is  the  same.  The  language  used  is  a  portion  of 
Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address  —  hence  the  name. 

Doubtless  this  edition  is  valuable  for  determining  the 
quality  of  handwriting  in  schools  employing  a  uniform 
system  of  handwriting.  It  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  so- 
called  three-slant  scale  when  individuality  of  handwriting 
is  encouraged. 

Freeman's  Chart  for  Diagnosing  Faults  in  Handwriting}  — 
Professor  Frank  N.  Freeman,  a  speciaHst  in  the  pedagogy 
of  handwriting,  has  prepared  a  chart  which  enables  teachers 
of  handwriting  to  locate  definitely  the  main  difficulty. 
By  the  process  of  analysis  he  determined  the  five  funda- 
mental characteristics  of  worthy  handwriting.  On  the 
basis  of  this  analysis  he  arranged  samples  of  each  funda- 
mental characteristic  in  the  order  of  their  degree  of  merit. 
He  arranged  these  as  follows:  (i)  uniformity  of  slant; 
(2)  uniformity  of  alinement ;  (3)  quality  of  line  ;  (4)  letter 
formation ;  and  (5)  spacing.  Three  degrees  of  the  quality 
of  each  fundamental  characteristic  are  further  shown  by 
three  samples  charted  in  the  order  of  merit.  The  qualities 
of  these  samples  are  rated  1,3,  and  5,  respectively. 

With  the  Ayres  and  Thorndike  scales  with  which  to 
find  the  relative  merit  of  the  handwriting  of  children,  and 
the  Freeman  charts  with  which  to  locate  its  points  of 
merit  and  demerit,  the  pedagogy  of  handwriting  demands 
the  respect  of  school  administrators.  At  last  the  teach- 
ing of  handwriting  has  reached  the  stage  of  scientific 
pedagogy. 

Starch's  Handwriting  Standard. — Professor  Daniel  Starch 

i"An  Analytical  Scale  for  the  Judging  of  Handwriting."  —  The  Ele- 
mentary School  Journal  (April,  191 5). 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  239 

of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  reported  his  Handwriting 
Test  in  the  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  for  October, 
1913.  He  pointed  out  that  the  Thorndike  and  Ay  res  scales 
are  measures  only  of  form  and  legibihty,  respectively.  He 
argued  that  a  simple  analysis  of  handwriting  shows  that 
its  three  chief  elements  are  legibility,  producibility,  and 
form. 

Starch  held  that  legibility  can  be  determined  best  by 
reading  areas  of  handwriting  which  are  exposed  through 
circular  openings  in  a  cardboard.  In  conformity  with  this 
theory  he  prepared  a  device  for  measuring  handwriting. 
From  a  piece  of  cardboard,  he  cut  three  circular  openings 
which  were  each  2.5  cm.  in  diameter.  By  shifting  the 
cardboard  about  over  the  writing  to  be  measured,  he  was 
able  to  test  its  legibility  at  several  places.  The  number  of 
letters  exposed  and  the  time  required  to  read  them  were 
recorded  after  each  trial.  From  the  records  of  several 
exposed  areas  the  average  reading  per  letter  was  com- 
puted. 

Starch's  experiments  proved  that  there  is  a  remarkably 
close  correlation  in  the  results  obtained  by  the  Letter- 
Exposure  Test  and  those  secured  by  the  application  of  the 
Thorndike  and  the  Ayres  scales. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  Letter-Exposure  Test  is  as  con- 
venient for  testing  the  handwriting  of  large  numbers  of 
children  as  is  either  the  Thorndike  or  Ayres  scales;  cer- 
tainly it  is  not  so  comprehensive  as  the  Freeman  scale. 

After  testing  the  efficiency  of  writing  scales,  Starch 
says:  "We  may  conclude  that  after  some  practice  in  the 
use  of  a  scale  the  measurements  with  either  scale  are  from 
three  to  four  times  as  accurate  as  the  valuations  made  by 
the  usual  percentile  marking  system." 


240  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 

Reading  Standards 

In  the  last  few  years  a  number  of  excellent  reading  tests 
have  been  prepared  and  standardized.  The  extensive- 
ness  of  these  tests  as  well  as  their  accessibility  make  it 
unnecessary  to  reproduce  them.  A  general  discussion  of 
their  merits  will  suffice.  Foremost  among  these  are  the 
following :  Thorndike's  scales,  Alpha  2  and  A  2  —  the 
former  is  a  test  of  the  child's  interpretative  ability  and  the 
latter  of  his  vocabulary  —  these  are  practical  tests  of  much 
merit; ^  the  Kansas  Silent  Reading  Test^  by  Dean  F.  J. 
Kelly,  of  the  University  of  Kansas ;  Monroe's  Standardized 
Silent  Reading  Tests ; ''  Gray's  Silent  Reading  Test ; 
Gray's  Oral  Reading  Test ;  ^  and  Courtis  s  Silent  Reading 
Tests.^  These  are  the  best  known  of  the  many  reading 
tests  which  have  appeared. 

Each  of  these  tests  is  workable  and  exceedingly  valuable. 
The  Kansas  Silent  Reading  Test  requires  less  effort  to 
apply  it  than  do  the  others.  The  overlapping  feature 
of  the  Thorndike  tests  will  commend  them  to  practical 
teachers.  The  Gray  tests  when  carefully  supervised  by  a 
competent  person  are  excellent.  Their  application  re- 
quires too  much  time  and  ability  for  them  to  be  of  value 
to  the  average  school.  These  tests  have  been  used  more 
generally  in  surveys  than  have  the  others.  The  Monroe 
tests  have  two  decided  advantages.  The  materials  are 
taken  from  school  readers,  and  the  three-set  series  prevents 
the  necessity  of  using  a  test  until  the  children  become 

*  Teachers  College  Record. 

*  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology. 

'  Bureau  of  Educational  Measurements  and  Standards,  Emporia,  Kan. 
^  Studies  in  Elementary  School  Reading  Through  Standardized  Tests. 
'  Standard  Research  Tests  in  Silent  Reading,  Courtis. 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  241 

familiar  with  it.  The  Courtis  tests  are  especially  suitable 
for  the  primary  grades  owing  to  the  simplicity  of  the 
answers  required.  Like  the  Monroe  tests,  the  three  forms 
are  approximately  of  equal  difficulty. 

The  following  tests  and  scales  are  worthy  of  considera- 
tion :  Brown's  Silent  Reading  Test ;  Fordyce's  Scale  for 
Measuring  Achievements  in  Reading,  the  Minnesota  Tests 
in  Reading,  Jones's  Scale  for  Teaching  and  Testing  Ele- 
mentary Reading,  Price's  Scale  for  Teaching  and  Testing 
Elementary  Reading  (oral) ;  and  Starch's  Silent  Reading 
Test. 

Composition  Standards 

Rice^s  Language  Test}  —  In  1903  Rice  gave  a  detailed 
report  of  the  test  he  made  in  language.  This  test  extended 
to  nine  cities,  and  included  twenty-two  schools,  containing 
8300  children.  The  compositions  were  arranged  in  five 
groups  on  the  basis  of  relative  merit.  The  papers  of  each 
group  were  graded  100%,  75%,  50%,  25%,  0%  respectively. 
The  results  showed  conclusively  that  there  was  a  wide 
variation  in  the  English  abilities  tested  by  him,  but  owing 
to  the  strong  probability  of  error  in  his  results,  this  test  has 
not  been  employed  as  a  standard  for  determining  EngHsh 
ability. 

Though  Dr.  Rice's  results  are  of  little  value  as  a  standard, 
his  experiments  have  stimulated  two  lines  of  research  in 
education,  which  are  fraught  with  wonderful  possibilities. 
I  refer,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  investigations  which  have 
had  for  their  goal  the  establishment  of  objective  standards 
of  measurement,  and  on  the  other,  to  the  investigations 
to  determine  minimum  essentials.     Both  of  these  problems 

*  The  Forum,  1903. 


242  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

were  raised  by  Dr.  Rice  and  he  has  lived  to  see  some  partial 
solutions  of  both. 

Report  of  Superintendent  Bliss  on  English  Composition.  — 
While  at  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  Superintendent  Bliss  reported  in 
the  Psychological  Clinic  for  March,  191 2,  a  series  of  tests 
he  had  carried  on  in  composition.  He  had  the  children 
reproduce  stories  read  to  them.  These  reproductions  were 
taken  to  the  central  ofhce  and  grouped,  by  the  plan  prac- 
ticed by  Rice,  into  five  groups.  He  determined  the  median 
ability  for  all  of  the  children  in  each  of  the  grades  above 
the  third.  He  then  reported  the  median  ability  for  all  of 
the  children  of  that  grade  in  the  city,  with  the  median  for 
the  particular  grade  in  each  school.  He  also  published 
sample  compositions  of  each  group  of  compositions  in  the 
scale. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  this  scheme  were 
little  less  than  marvelous.  He  says :  "In  a  Massachusetts 
school  system,  with  t,t,  third-grade  teachers  the  initial  test 
showed  a  city  average  of  8.5  points,  with  twenty- three 
classes  below  the  requirement  and  eight  classes  above. 
One  year  later  the  city  average  was  19.2  points,  with 
thirteen  classes  below  the  requirement  and  nineteen  classes 
above.  This  represented  an  increase  of  126%  in  the  level 
of  efficiency  in  the  third  grade."  Mr.  Bliss  cites  other 
cases  where  even  greater  per  cents  of  increase  were  made 
by  the  use  of  this  method. 

The  Hillegas  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in 
English  Composition.  —  In  September,  191 2,  Professor 
M.  B.  Hillegas  published  his  composition  scale  in  the 
Teachers  College  Record.  In  the  introduction  to  this  scale 
Professor  Hillegas  refers  to  the  previous  efforts  at  quantita- 
tive standards  by  Cornman,  Rice,  Stone,  and  Thorndike. 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  243 

He  does  not,  however,  refer  to  Rice's  pioneer  effort  to  es- 
tablish a  standard  in  EngHsh  composition  in  1902. 

Hillegas  used  a  method  similar  to  the  one  Thorndike 
used  in  determining  quahty  in  handwriting.  He,  aided 
by  one  other  person,  graded  about  7000  compositions  into 
ten  classes.  From  these  ten  classes  seventy-five  samples 
were  chosen.  Artificial  samples  were  employed  at  the 
extremes  of  his  scale,  as  they  were  in  Thorndike's  writing 
scale,  in  order  to  produce  a  scale  of  wide  range  of  measure- 
ment. In  all  there  were  eighty- three  samples  employed. 
These  eighty-three  samples  were  given  to  more  than  one 
hundred  persons  who  were  requested  to  rank  them  i,  2,  3, 
etc.,  in  order  of  their  merit. 

Owing  to  misunderstandings  and  errors,  only  seventy- 
three  records  were  used.  On  the  basis  of  Hke  character- 
istics these  records  were  reduced  to  twenty-three.  This 
reduced  number  of  samples  contained  all  the  important 
steps  in  quahty  from  the  poorest  to  the  best.  Six  other 
samples,  including  two  artificial  ones,  were  finally  added, 
making  a  total  of  twenty-nine  samples. 

The  twenty-nine  samples  were  ranked  by  234  judges. 
On  the  basis  of  this  ranking  the  number  of  samples  was 
reduced  to  ten.  The  difference  between  the  merit  of  the 
first  and  second  samples  in  the  scale  is  not  identical  with 
the  difference  in  merit  of  any  other  two  successive  samples. 
These  differences,  however,  are  sufficiently  equal  for 
practical  purposes. 

The  Hillegas  scale  is  a  meritorious  piece  of  work.  It  is 
a  decided  step  in  the  right  direction.  The  brevity  of  the 
samples  and  the  natural  gradation  from  one  quahty  to  an- 
other make  its  appHcation  from  this  point  of  view  quite  easy. 
This  scale  nevertheless  has  many  defects.     Commenting 


244  THE   ESSENTIALS  OE   GOOD  TEACHING 

upon  it  Frank  W.  Ballou  of  the  Department  of  Educational 
Investigation  and  Measurement  of  the  Boston  schools  says  : 
"An  experiment  with  the  Hillegas  scale  showed  that  the 
use  of  such  an  objective  measure  did  unify  the  grades  given 
to  compositions  by  teachers.  It  was  also  found,  however, 
that  the  Hillegas  scale  was  not  satisfactory  to  the  teachers 
of  Newton,  owing  to  what  seemed  to  them  to  be  inherent 
faults.  These  faults  may  be  stated  briefly  as  follows : 
first,  the  scale  aims  to  measure  too  varied  a  product ; 
second,  the  compositions  in  it  are  not  typical  of  good  school 
work  —  (a)  some  are  artificial,  (h)  others  are  bookish, 
really  reproductions,  and  (c)  no  conversation  is  contained 
in  any  of  them."  ^  As  Courtis's  practical  tests  in  arith- 
metic grew  out  of  an  attempt  to  use  the  conclusions  of 
Stone,  so  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  of  Newton, 
Mass.,  to  use  the  Hillegas  scale  led  directly  to  the  practical 
Harvard-Newton  Scales  for  the  Measurement  of  English 
Composition. 

The  Harvard-Newton  Scales.  —  These  scales  are  the 
product  of  the  work  of  the  eighth-grade  teachers  and  the 
elementary-school  principals  in  the  public  schools  of 
Newton,  Mass.,  assisted  by  the  teachers  of  English  in  the 
high  schools  of  Newton,  and  by  teachers  and  principals  in 
Arlington,  Mass.,  and  Boston,  under  the  direction  of 
Frank  W.  Ballou  with  the  cooperation  of  the  Joseph  Lee 
Fellow  for  Research  in  Education. 

The  compositions  were  written  by  the  eighth-grade  pupils 
of  Newton.  All  of  the  compositions  of  the  eleven  grade 
schools  were  grouped  into  five  groups.  Each  group  in- 
cluded specimens  of  a  given  type  of  composition  (narration, 
description,  etc.).     Each  eighth-grade  teacher  selected  25% 

^  A  Preliminary  Discussion  to  the  Harvard-Newton  Scales. 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS  245 

of  the  compositions  of  his  grade  on  the  basis  of  their 
representative  merit.  These  selected  compositions  from 
the  eleven  schools  were  then  arranged  into  four  groups. 
Twenty-four  readers  were  instructed  to  arrange  the  themes 
of  each  group  in  the  order  of  their  merit  and  to  rate  arbi- 
trarily the  best  theme  95%  and  each  of  the  remaining 
themes  with  reference  to  this  standard. 

These  ratings  were  tabulated  and  the  median  grade  for 
each  composition  was  worked  out.  For  example,  the 
highest  grade  for  the  best  composition  was  95%,  the  lowest 
grade  was  68%,  and  the  median  grade  was  83%.  In  like 
manner  tabulation  was  made  of  the  distribution  of  the 
ranks  given  each  composition.  They  were  then  arranged 
in  serial  order  according  to  the  median  ranks,  beginning 
with  the  highest.  By  means  of  this  latter  method  it  was 
discovered  that  25%  of  the  judges  were  radical  in  their 
judgment.  Consequently  the  25%  of  radical  readers  was 
cut  off.  The  scale  was  then  built  on  the  median  percentile 
basis.  Out  of  the  twenty-five  compositions  which  were 
chosen  to  represent  each  form  of  discourse,  six  typical 
compositions  were  finally  chosen  for  the  scale.  The  differ- 
ence in  degree  of  quality  was  carefully  worked  out  and  the 
samples  were  arbitrarily  marked  95%,  85%,  75%,  65%, 
55%,  and  45%,  respectively. 

The  Harvard-Newton  Scales  ^  commend  themselves  to 
the  practical  school  man  on  the  following  points :  first, 
there  is  a  scale  for  each  form  of  discourse ;  second,  the 
compositions  in  the  scale  are  the  real  productions  of  children 
and  not  "built  up  compositions";  third,  each  scale  con- 
sists of  only  six  types.  This  makes  it  an  easy  matter  for 
the  person  doing  the  grading  to  familiarize  himself  with 
'  The  Harvard  Press,  50  cents. 


246  THE   ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

the  scales.  The  greatest  weakness  in  these  scales  lies  in 
the  fact  that  they  are  best  suited  for  eighth-grade  pupils. 

An  application  of  these  scales  reveals  the  fact  that  there 
is  but  slight  variation  in  the  grades  given  by  two  or  more 
judges.  Indeed,  the  variation  is  so  slight  that  a  single 
investigator  can  feel  reasonably  certain  that  his  grades 
will  not  vary  widely  from  the  median  grades  determined 
by  several  judges. 

The  Harvard-Newton  Scale  is  quite  as  practical,  though 
not  so  easily  applied,  as  the  Thorndike  and  the  Ayres 
handwriting  scales,  and  the  Courtis  Tests  in  Arithmetic 
(Series  B).  It  has  a  real  ring  to  it  and  merits  a  wider 
use  than  it  has  at  present. 

The  Trabue  Composition  Standard}  —  The  Nassau 
County  Supplement  to  the  Hillegas  Scale  in  composition, 
which  was  prepared  by  M.  R.  Trabue,  consists  of  a  graded 
series  of  compositions  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  general 
merit.  These  compositions  are  arranged  on  a  single  sheet 
of  paper  in  much  the  same  fashion  as  are  the  samples  of 
handwriting  in  the  Ayres  and  the  Thorndike  handwriting 
scales.  The  most  commendable  feature  of  this  standard 
is  its  simplicity.  Its  weakness  is  due  to  the  poor  gradation 
and  the  local  character  of  some  of  the  samples. 

The  Breed  and  Frostic  Composition  Scales.  —  Breed  and 
Frostic  have  derived  a  composition  scale  for  sixth-grade 
pupils.  A  portion  of  a  story  was  read  to  the  class,  after 
which  the  pupils  attempted  to  complete  it  in  twenty  min- 
utes. The  method  employed  in  selecting  and  grading  the 
compositions  constituting  the  scale  is  similar  to  the  one 
employed  by  Hillegas. 

Willing' s  Composition  Scale.  —  M.  H.  Willing  produced 
*  Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education,  1916. 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  247 

this  scale  as  a  master's  thesis  at  the  University  of  Chicago. 
The  original  compositions  were  taken  from  grades  four  to 
eight  inclusive.  The  gradation  of  the  compositions  in 
the  scale  was  based  upon  their  "story  value"  and  the  fre- 
quency of  errors.  This  scale  is  meritorious  in  that  the 
compositions  are  brief,  well  graded,  and  easily  accessible 
for  testing  compositions. 

Arithmetic  Standards 

Rice's  Arithmetic  Test.  —  In  the  October  number  of  the 
Forum,  1902,  Dr.  Rice  reported  the  results  of  an  arithmetic 
test  which  he  had  conducted  in  seven  different  cities,  in- 
cluding eighteen  buildings  and  8000  children.  As  Stone 
pointed  out  later,  Dr.  Rice's  results  were  not  satisfactory 
as  a  standard,  due  to  certain  limitations  in  the  problems 
used  and  the  character  of  the  methods  employed  in  gather- 
ing and  scoring  these. 

The  Courtis  Standard  Tests}  —  In  December,  1910, 
W.  S.  Courtis,  of  Detroit,  reported  in  the  Elementary 
School  Teacher  his  Standard  Test  in  Arithmetic  (Series  A). 
This  test  developed  as  a  result  of  applying  the  Stone  test 
in  the  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  where  Mr.  Courtis 
was  head  of  the  Department  of  Science  and  Mathematics. 
After  a  free  use  of  his  Series-A  Test,  which  consisted  of 
testing  the  pupils'  abiHty  to  use  the  four  fundamental 
processes  when  expressed  in  the  tables  ordinarily  used  in 
schoolrooms,  and  of  testing  the  pupils'  abiUty  to  employ 
the  reasoning  processes  involved  in  the  solution  of  problems 
suitable  to  the  grammar  grades,  Mr.  Courtis  remarked  that 
"The  work  done  with  Series  A  has  proved  that  the  basic 

'  Because  of  their  wide  distribution  these  tests  are  not  reproduced.  They 
may  be  secured  from  Mr.  Courtis,  of  Detroit,  Mich. 


248 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 


problem  in  education  to-day  is  that  of  ministering  ade- 
quately to  individual  needs.  The  first  step  towards  this 
end  is  the  formation  of  definite  objective  standards."  The 
standards  derived  from  the  use  of  Series  A,  however,  are 
either  complex  or  of  questionable  value,  owing  to  the  un- 
certainty of  their  meaning.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
the  reasoning  tests,  in  which  mere  abihty  to  read  is  a  large 
factor.  These  tests  have  been  displaced  by  his  Series-B 
Tests. 

Series  B  is  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  secure  definite 
objective  standards  for  each  of  the  four  fundamental 
operations  in  whole  numbers.  With  the  establishment  of 
this  standard  it  is  possible  to  set  for  each  grade  just  the 
degree  of  skill  in  each  of  the  fundamental  processes  that 
is  reported  in  the  median  scores  of  the  classes  that  have 
been  tested. 

The  following  table  shows  the  median  skills  of  three 
distinct  groups  of  children  in  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic 
when  tested  by  the  Series-B  Tests.  The  approximation 
of  the  series  reveals  the  universal  character  of  the  results. 


Table  II 


STH  Grade 

6th  Grade 

D 

B 

G 

D 

B 

G 

Addition A 

R 
Subtraction      ....    A 

R 
Multiplication      ...    A 

R 
Division A 

R 

6.7 
3-9 

8. 

5-5 
6. 

3-8 

4-9 

2.7 

7.2 

3-7 
7.6 

4-9 
5-8 
3-3 
4-5 

2. 

7-1 

3-7 

6.5 

4.9 

6. 

2.6 

4.5 

2-3 

8.4 
4.6 

8.8 
6.2 

7.4 
4.8 
6.4 
4.4 

8.3 
4.9 

9- 

6.3 

6.9 

4.8 

5.5 
3-3 

8. 

4.4 

8.9 

6.1 

7.2 

4.5 

5.8 

4.3 

OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS 


249 


7TH  Grade 

8th  Grade 

D 

B 

G 

D 

B 

G 

Addition A 

R 
Subtraction      ....    A 

R 
Multiplication      ...    A 

R 
Division A 

R 

9.2 

3-4 
9.8 

7-3 

9.6 

6. 

8.6 

7-1 

9.2 
5-6 
10. 
6.9 
8. 

S-i 
6.9 
5-1 

8.9 
4-7 
10.2 
7.8 
8.4 

5-2 

7.6 
5-1 

10.2 

6.7 

12.3 

9-5 
10.5 

7- 

10.6 
8.8 

II. 

7-5 
11.4 
8.6 
9-5 
6.5 
6.9 
6.9 

9 

5 

II 

8 

9 
6 

7 
6 

7 
6 

7 
4 
7 
4 
6 

3 

D  =  Detroit  (1,315  children  tested) 
B  =  Boston  (20,441  children  tested) 
G=  General  (3,618  children  tested) 
A  =  Number  of  problems  attempted 
R= Number  of  problems  right 


Courtis  early  discovered  the  value  of  the  objective 
standard  in  determining  individual  variation.  He  says : 
"The  results  of  the  tests  disclosed  the  usual  wide  range  of 
individual  variation  in  every  grade."  After  using  these 
objective  standards  for  some  time  Professor  Courtis  writes  : 
"Not  only  did  the  variabihties  decrease,  but  unhoped  for 
degrees  of  accuracy  were  attained." 

The  following  graphs  of  the  abilities  of  intermediate 
pupils  in  multiplication  and  oral  reading  as  determined  by 
the  Courtis  and  Gray  scales  show  conclusively  that  varia- 
bility is  easily  detected  by  the  application  of  objective 
standards. 

The  graphs  shown  in  Fig.  3  reveal  two  distinct  groups 
of  abilities  in  each  subject.  This  may  mean  that  little  care 
has  been  given  to  promotions.  It  is  more  likely  to  indicate 
a  lack  of  sufl&cient  drill  under  proper  conditions.     After 


250 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD  TEACHING 


the  abilities  are  once  revealed  there  is  every  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  a  conscientious  teacher  will  cause  the  abilities 
of  the  lower  group  to  be  raised  and  thereby  reduce  the  degree 
of  variability. 

Just  as  a  proper  diagnosis  in  medicine  is  a  prerequisite 
to  effective  medical  treatment,  so  a  proper  diagnosis  of 


i\ 

/ 

\ 

1 

\ 

/ 

\ 

1 

1 

\ 
\ 

,.••■ 

■••  / 

\ 

1 

\ 

\ 

7 

".  / 

\ 

1 

\ 

\ 

/  •., 

\ 

.•' 

'      1 
' ! 

\     " 

/     •• 

\ 
\ 

.•" 

1 

\ 

\ 

/ 

'•. 

\ 

,•' 

1 
1 

\ 

/ 

•^ 

/ 

A"  • 

•. 

.•\ 

.^^ 

\ 

\ 

•• 

-^'" 

\ 

12  3^5678 

Fig.  3. 

A  graph  of  abilities  in  oral  reading. 

A  graph  of  abihties  in  multiplication. 

Figures  on  base  Une  represent  units  of  abiUty. 

Figures  in  vertical  column  indicate  the  number  of  persons  having  such  abilities. 

the  specific  abilities  of  pupils  is  a  prerequisite  to  the  ap- 
plication of  proper  methods. 

The  Courtis  tests  are  valuable  mainly  for  testing  skill 
in  the  four  fundamentals  of  arithmetic.  The  following 
tests  are  for  purposes  of  diagnosis. 

The  Cleveland-Survey  Arithmetic  Tests. — These  tests 
consist  of  the  fifteen  divisions  that  are  given  below.  They 
were  used  in  the  Cleveland  survey  to  determine  the  arith- 
metical abilities  of  the  children,  so  far  as  they  were  stimu- 
lated by  the  processes  involved  in  the  test. 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  251 

Set  a.    Addition 

169041        7932136 
265£2376o4589 

Set  B.     Subtraction 

9  7  II  8  12  I  9  13  4  12 

93  61  307  83  6 


Set  C.     Multiplication 


2  4 

2  7 


3)9  4)32 


0542 

2619 

7 
6 

4 
0 

9 
5 

Set  D.     Division 

6)36            2)0            7)28 

9)9 

3)21 

Set  E.    Addition 


5 

2 

9 

2 

6 

I 

9 

2 

8 

8 

8 

3 

4 

7 

2 

8 

0 

5 

4 

2 

I 

0 

S 

7 

0 

8 

5 

5 

4 

I 

6 

6 

8 

4 

3 

Set  F.     Subtraction 


616 

456 

1248 
709 

1365                    1092 
618                      472 

716 
344 

Set  G. 

Multiplication 

2345 

2 

9735 
5 

8642                   6789 
9                         2 

2345 
6 

Set  H.     Fractions 

3_1_1_  6_4_  4    I    1_  8_7 

5  1  7~  ^     sr~  919""  9     I' 


252  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 


7) 

Set  I. 

Divi 

sion 

• 

4)55424 

'65982 

2)58748 

5)41780 

Set 

J. 

Addition 

7        9 

4 

7 

2 

9 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

4 

3        2 

5        2 

5 

I 

9 

6 

9 

I 

8 

0 

5 

3 

I        I 

4        4 

8 

9 

4 

2 

6 

5 

5 

7 

3 

7 

7        6 

2        8 

I 

4 

8 

4 

7 

I 

4 

I 

4 

7 

6        6 

6        2 

4 

3 

5 

7 

0 

4 

I 

8 

6 

0 

9        I 

0        7 

8 

2 

I 

I 

4 

6 

8 

5 

2 

2 

6        8 

S        5 

5 

8 

5 

3 

3 

5 

2 

I 

3 

9 

3        6 

I         3 

I 

5 

2 

9 

7 

3 

I 

3 

9 

5 

4        9 

8        6 

3 

2 

4 

2 

I 

3 

3 

7 

2 

6 

5        7 

3        I 

9 

7 

3 

3 

6 

7 

9 

4 

2 

3 

4        5 

2        4 

6 

7 

6 

8 

0 

6 

8 

9 

8 

4 

2        2 

Q          8 

3 

I 

7 

5 

6 

I 

4 

4 

5 

8 

9        2 

2        ^ 

5 

9 

6 

5 

6 

7 

5 

4 

6 

8 

9        4 

Set 
36)672 

K. 

Div 

ISION 
23)483 

- 

21)441 

51)1173 

Set  L. 

Multiplication 

8246 

3597 

5739 

"648 

9537 

29 

— 

73 

- 

85 

46 

92 

Set 

M. 

Addition 

7493 

8937 

862 

5 

2123 

5142 

3691 

Q016 

6345 

409 

I 

1679 

0376 

4526 

6487 

2783 

3844 

5555 

4955 

7479 

7591 

4883 

8697 

6331 

9314 

2087 

6166 

1341 

731 
Set 

4 

N. 

Di\ 

6808 

'ISION 

5507 

816s 

67)32763      48)28464      97)36084      59)29382 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS' 


253 


1  1  _i_  1  _ 


9 


Set  O.    Fractions 

_ 1  _  3  v5  — 


n-^i= 


The  time  allowances  for  the  several  tests  are  as  follows 


Set  A 
SetB 
Set  C 
Set  D 
SetE 
SetF 
Set  G 
SetH 


30  seconds 
30  seconds 
30  second^ 
30  seconds 
30  seconds 
I  minute 
I  minute 
30  seconds 


Set  I     . 

.     I  minute 

Set  J     . 

.     2  minutes 

Set  K   . 

.     2  minutes 

SetL    . 

.     3  minutes 

Set  M  . 

.     3  minutes 

SetN   . 

.     3  minutes 

Set  0    . 

.     3  minutes 

The  Woody  Arithmetic  Scales.  —  The  Woody  scales  con- 
sist of  Series  A  and  B,  each  of  which  includes  the  four  funda- 
mental processes  in  arithmetic.  Series  B  consists  of  prob- 
lems chosen  from  Series  A.  The  addition  scale  of  Series  A 
is  given  below. 

Name 

When  is  your  next  birthday  ? How  old  will  you  be  ? 

Are  you  a  boy  or  girl  ? In  what  grade  are  you  ? 

(i)              (2)  (3)  (4)  (5)  (6)                  (7) 

2  2  17  53  72  60             3  +  1  = 

3  4  _£  45  26  37 
3 


(8) 

(9) 

(10) 

(11) 

(12) 

(13) 

2  +  5+1  = 

20 

21 

32 

43 

23 

10 

33 

59 

I 

25 

2 

35 

iZ 

2 

16 

30 

I3_ 

25 

2  54  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 


(14) 

(15) 

(16) 

(17) 

(18) 

25+42= 

100 

9 

199 

2563 

33 

24 

194 

1387 

45 

12 

29s 

4954 

201 

15 

156 

2065 

46 

19 

(19)  (20)  (21)  (22)  (23) 


■  -75 

I12.50 

$8.00 

547 

1-25 

16.75 

5-75 

197 

•49 

15-75 

2.33 

685 

4.16 

678 

■94 

456 

6.32 

393 

525 
240 

152 

(24) 

(25) 

(26) 

4-0125 

l+i+J+i= 

I2i 

1-5907 

62^ 

4.10 

121 

8.673 

37i 

4i 

H 

113.46 

H 

6| 

49.6098 

5i 

M 

19.9 
9.87 
.0086 

18.253 
6.04 

(27) 


(28)        (29)         (30)  (31)  (32) 

1-1=  4i  H  113-46  l+i+i= 


2  ft.  6  in. 

2  yr.  5  mo. 

i6.| 

3  ft-  5  in. 

3  yr.  6  mo. 

i^i 

4  ft.  9  in. 

4  yr.  9  mo. 

2li 

4  yr.  2  mo. 

32f 

6  yr.  7  mo. 

OBJECTIVE   ST.\ND.\RDS  255 

(33)  (34)  (35)  (36)  (37) 

49  i+l  = 

28 

63 

95 

69 

22 

33 

36 

01 

56 

88 

75  (38) 

56  25.091  +  100.4+25  +  98.28+19.3614  = 

10 

18 

These  scales  are  especially  valuable  for  diagnosing  the 
arithmetical  ailments  of  children.  The  variation  and 
gradation  of  the  Woody  scales  are  commendable  features 
of  these  scales.  The  following  quotation  from  the  author 
indicates  their  specific  value:  "The  great  variety  of 
the  problems  in  these  scales,  and  the  fact  that  the 
problems  in  each  of  the  various  operations  proceed  from 
the  simplest  to  the  more  difficult  problems,  aid  greatly 
in  the  location  of  the  weaknesses  of  the  class.  If  a  large 
number  in  a  class  fail  to  invert  the  divisor  in  the  problems 
in  division  of  fractions,  or  if  a  large  number  in  a  class  fail 
to  locate  the  decimal  point  properly  in  the  problems  in 
multiplication  of  decimal  fractions,  a  teacher  should  know 
immediately  that  these  classes  need  more  practice  in  these 
particular  processes.  In  a  Uke  manner,  by  locating  the 
particular  types  of  problems  missed,  one  should  be  able  to 
direct  the  work  of  a  class  more  intelligently." 


256 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 


Bailouts  Addition-of -Fractions  Tests.  —  These  tests  grew 
out  of  an  analysis  of  the  specific  steps  involved  in  adding 
two  or  more  fractions.  Since  specific  abilities  are  required 
to  make  these  specific  steps  in  solving  problems  in  the 
addition  of  fractions,  Ballou  rightly  concluded  that  there 
should  be  a  test  for  these  abihties.  The  Ballou  tests  are 
given  below. 


The  Ballou  Test  for  Addition  of  Fractions 
time,  two  minutes 


Test  I 
(i)  \  (2)  A 

i  n 

Test  3 
(i)     I  (2)  I 

ii  \ 

Tests 
(i)   h  (2)     t 


Test  2 
(i)  i  (2)     ? 

i  n 

Test  4 

(i)     }  (2)  I 

9  1 

Teste 
(i)     \  (2)  f 

A  t 


Boston  Medians  of  the  Ballou  Addition  of  Fractions  Tests 


Test  1 

Test  2 

Test  3 

Test  4 

Test  5 

Test  6 

e 

S 

c 

0 

a 

Cll 

rt 

T3 

T3 

c 

-a 

c 

"?, 

i^ 

•3 

a 

■o 

■t3 

s 

^ 

s 

-0 

S 

■■B 

S 

^ 

S 

y^ 

S   t 

H 

S 

^ 

IS 

& 

s 

&■ 

S 

g. 

S 

>. 

^ 

^: 

^ 

TS 

T3 

k* 

T3 

a 

0. 

a 

a. 

0 

A, 

Cfi 

«j; 

w 

< 

C/2 

< 

CO 

< 

<ji 

< 

CO 

< 

VI    .     . 

1205 

10.7 

7Q.6 

7-7 

65.6 

5-5 

41.9 

4.0 

69-5 

4.6 

51.0 

4.4 

48.6 

VII  .     . 

1243 

i6.,s 

86.6 

10. 1 

72. Q 

7-3 

46.1 

5-3 

69.2 

6.3 

54-9 

5-7 

48.1 

VIII      . 

II30  20.7 

88.2 

11.6 

74-4 

8.4 

47-4 

6.0 

67.8 

6.9 

52.4 

6.4 

46.5 

OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  257 

The  other  arithmetic  tests  which  have  appeared  have 
not  attracted  such  wide  attention  as  those  given.  Reason- 
ing tests  in  arithmetic,  one  each  by  Stone  and  Starch,  have 
been  used  quite  extensively.  Other  tests  will  be  forth- 
coming. Courtis  is  perfecting  a  diagnostic  test  in  the  funda- 
mentals of  arithmetic,  which  promises  much. 

Drawing  Scales 

The  Thorndike  Scale  for  Measuring  Achievement  in  Draw- 
ing. —  In  the  Teachers  College  Record  for  November,  1913, 
Professor  Thorndike  presented  a  scale  for  the  measure- 
ment of  achievement  in  drawing.  In  reference  to  the 
purpose  of  this  scale  he  says  :  "  It  is  the  purpose  to  present 
a  provisional  scale  by  which  achievement  and  improvement 
in  drawing  can  be  measured  with  somewhat  the  same 
clearness,  exactness,  and  commensurability  as  achievement 
and  improvement  in  lifting  weights." 

The  same  general  method  which  was  used  in  determin- 
ing the  Thorndike  Handwriting  Scale  and  the  Hillegas 
Composition  Scale  was  employed  in  the  making  of  this 
drawing  scale.  Forty-five  drawings  of  children  were  first 
submitted  to  a  number  of  critics  whose  ratings  reduced  the 
number  to  a  series  of  fifteen  drawings  graded  from  zero  up. 

This  series  of  fifteen  drawings  was  rated  by  376  persons, 
of  whom  sixty  were  artists  of  distinction,  eighty  were 
supervisors  of  art,  and  236  were  students  of  education  and 
psychology. 

The  unit  of  the  scale  was  one  merit.  This  unit  is  ''  the 
difference  of  merit  in  children's  drawings,  which  75%  of 
artists,  teachers  of  art,  and  intelligent  judges  generally 
can  distinguish,  and  which  25%  of  them  fail  to  distinguish." 
The  drawing  lowest  in  the  scale  was  judged  of  zero  merit. 


258 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF   GOOD   TEACHING 


The  difference  of  merit  between  two  drawings  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  unit  merit.  It  depends  upon  the  relative  number  of 
judges  who  considered  one  drawing  better  than  the  other. 
If  75%  of  the  judges  considered  one  drawing  superior  to 
another  the  difference  in  quality  is  called  a  unit  of  merit. 
If  less  than  75%  of  the  judges  distinguished  a  difference 
in  merit  between  two  drawings,  the  difference  between  the 
two  is  less  than  one  unit.  If  more  than  75%  of  the  judges 
discerned  a  difference  in  merit  the  difference  in  quahty 
was  marked  more  than  one  unit.  The  following  is  the 
determined  rating : 

Table  III 


Drawing  i  .     .     .      —  merit 

Drawing    8  .     .     .     10.5  merit 

Drawing  2 

2.4  merit 

Drawing    9 

1 1. 8  merit 

Drawing  3 

3.9  merit 

Drawing  10 

12.6  merit 

Drawing  4 

5.7  merit 

Drawing  11 

13.5  merit 

Drawing  5 

6.5  merit 

Drawing  12 

14.4  merit 

Drawing  6 

7.8  merit 

Drawing  13 

16     merit 

Drawing  7 

8.6  merit 

Drawing  14 

1 7     merit 

The  reader  should  see  the  drawings  in  the  Teachers 
College  Record,  which  accompany  these  merit  values. 

No  one  is  more  conscious  of  the  limitations  of  this  scale 
than  is  Professor  Thorndike.  In  spite  of  its  Hmitations  it 
is  a  valuable  contribution  to  experimental  education.  The 
method  of  attack,  the  care  employed  in  determining  dif- 
ferences in  merit,  and  the  scientific  attitude  of  the  author 
in  the  whole  procedure  will  have  a  wholesome  effect  upon 
investigators.  It  is  as  practical  in  determining  the  qualities 
of  children's  drawings  as  are  the  writing  scales  in  determin- 
ing the  quahty  of  handwriting.  It  would  better  meet  the 
needs  of  the  schools  if  it  attempted  to  measure  the  various 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS  259 

aspects  of  children's  art  instead  of  a  single  aspect.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  it  will  be  followed  by  other  drawing  scales  which 
will  measure  the  various  qualities  of  children's  drawings. 

Geography  Scales 

Of  the  several  attempts  to  standardize  the  materials  in 
geography  for  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school, 
that  by  Professors  Hahn  and  Lackey  of  the  State  Normal 
School  of  Wayne,  Nebraska,  is  certainly  the  most  successful 
of  those  which  have  as  yet  reached  the  public. 

Hahn-Lackey  Geography  Scale.  —  This  scale  consists  of 
two  hundred  and  sixteen  questions  arranged  in  twenty- 
three  columns,  on  the  basis  of  their  relative  difficulty. 
The  determination  of  the  relative  difficulty  of  these  ques- 
tions and  their  arrangement  in  columns  resulted  from  an 
examination  of  the  answers  of  1696  children  in  twelve  dif- 
ferent schools,  to  whom  the  questions  were  given. 

The  known  difficulty  of  the  questions,  their  arrange- 
ment in  twenty-three  columns  in  the  order  of  their  known 
difficulty  for  pupils  in  grades  four  to  eight  inclusive,  the 
specific  directions  relative  to  the  values  to  be  given,  the 
answers  received,  the  wide  distribution  of  the  subject- 
matter  involved,  and  especially  the  practicability  of  this 
scale,  place  it  alongside  some  of  the  best  scales  that  have 
appeared. 

History  Tests 

Tests  of  Information  in  American  History.  —  So  far, 
methodologists  in  American  history  have  not  succeeded 
in  supplying  an  objective  standard  that  is  entirely  satis- 
factory.    The  Tests  of  Information  in  American  History^ 

^  Tests  of  Information  in  American  History,  C.  L.  Harlan,  College  of 
Education,  University  of  Minnesota. 


26o  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GOOD  TEACHING 

is  the  most  satisfactory  of  the  attempted  standards  that 
have  appeared  on  this  subject. 

It  consists  of  ten  distinct  exercises  which  include  a  total 
of  fifty  elements,  each  of  which  when  answered  correctly 
is  scored  two  points.  These  exercises  were  prepared  for 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  though  they  might  well  be 
given  to  grades  higher  or  lower  than  these.  Tentative 
standard  scores  based  upon  more  than  two  thousand 
answers  have  been  determined  already. 

The  Harlan  tests  are  commendable  in  that  they  test 
the  pupil's  control  of  some  very  simple  yet  important  data 
which  are  distributed  over  the  field  of  American  history. 
The  data  tested  have  a  distinct  educational  significance  in 
that  they  are  samples  wisely  chosen  from  the  several  phases 
of  American  history.  Moreover,  both  the  questions  asked 
and  the  answers  required  are  simple  and  definite. 

These  tests  have  not  as  yet  reached  the  quality  pos- 
sessed by  some  of  the  best  tests  in  other  subjects.  Until 
the  relative  value  of  the  information  sought  has  been 
standardized  and  classified  this  test  fails  to  possess  an 
essential  quality  of  standardized  tests.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  these  tests  will  be  perfected  and  given  to  the  public 
in  the  near  future. 

Standards  in  Algebra 

Standardized  Tests  in  First-Year  Algebra}  —  These  tests 
consist  of  sixteen  exercises  which  include  the  following 
subjects  in  the  order  given  :  collecting  terms,  subtraction, 
simple  equations,  parenthesis,  special  products,  exponents, 
factoring,  clearing  of  fractions,  fractional  factors,  formulae, 

1  Prepared  by  H.  O.  Rugg,  University  of  Chicago,  and  J.  R.  Clark,  Parker 
High  School,  Chicago. 


OBJECTIVE   STANDARDS  261 

quadratic  equations,  simultaneous  equations,  radicals, 
graphs,  and  quadratic  equations  with  irrational  roots. 

These  tests  are  well  grouped,  progressive,  and  sufficiently 
inclusive  to  be  valuable.  Through  the  cooperation  of 
many  schools,  median  scores  have  been  determined  and 
are  now  available. 

Because  of  their  progressive  character  these  tests  are 
admirably  suited  for  diagnostic  purposes.  Effective  diag- 
nosis in  first-year  algebra  is  a  fundamental  problem.  The 
diagnostic  character  of  these  tests  makes  them  admirably 
suited  to  solve  this  problem. 

Hurdles  in  First-Year  Algebra.  —  A  most  ingenious  use 
of  tests  in  first-year  algebra  is  reported  in  the  Journal  oj 
Educational  Research  for  January,  1920.^  These  tests 
were  arranged  by  Murray  A.  Dalman,  Director  of  the  De- 
partment of  Reference  and  Research  in  the  IndianapoHs 
Schools,  for  the  algebra  classes  of  the  Emmerich  Manual 
Training  High  School. 

The  tests  under  each  topic  in  first-year  algebra  are  graded 
into  four  groups  which  are  labeled  respectively  C,  B,  A, 
and  A+.  Each  pupil  is  given  four  trials,  if  necessary,  to 
"hurdle"  each  of  these  groups.  A  record  of  the  attempts 
and  successes  of  the  several  pupils  is  kept  and  used  as  a 
basis  for  classifying  all  pupils  in  algebra.  As  devices  for 
diagnosing  ability  in  algebra  for  the  purpose  of  grouping 
pupils  into  classes,  these  tests  will  appeal  strongly  to 
practical  teachers  of  algebra  everywhere. 

Standards  Used  to  Measure  Both  Form  and  Content.  — 
There  is  a  prevailing  notion  abroad  in  educational  circles 
that  objective  standards  can  be  used  only  in  measuring  the 

1  The  first  issue  of  this  journal  is  published  for  the  University  of  Illinois 
by  the  Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 


262  THE  ESSENTIALS   OF   GOOD   TEACHING 

skills  of  pupils.  Persons  who  hold  this  notion  argue  that 
since  these  standards  measure  skill  only,  the  results  of 
such  measurements  are  of  little  value  in  determining  the 
relative  merit  of  teaching.  They  further  argue  that  since 
the  objective  standards  measure  form  and  not  content,  any 
marked  attention  given  to  this  sort  of  measurement  will 
result  in  an  overemphasis  of  form  at  the  expense  of  content. 

These  arguments  are  based  upon  two  fallacies :  (i)  It 
is  fallacious  to  assume  that  only  skill  can  be  measured  by 
the  objective  standard.  It  is  true  that  standards  for  the 
measurement  of  skill  were  determined  first.  Standards 
for  the  measurement  of  abiHties  to  reason,  to  enjoy,  and  to 
appreciate  have  followed.  (2)  It  is  fallacious  to  assume 
that  attention  to  the  measurement  of  such  abiUties  as  the 
fundamentals  in  arithmetic,  handwriting,  spelling,  form 
in  reading,  etc.,  will  result  in  an  overemphasis  of  the 
formal  subjects  to  the  detriment  of  the  content  subjects. 
This  would  not  be  fallacious  were  it  not  true  that  grades 
far  above  the  median  indicate  an  undue  emphasis  of  the 
subject  taught  and  consequently  are  a  mark  of  poor  teach- 
ing. 

It  must  be  remembered  also  that  an  application  of  a 
standard  test  will  detect  an  undue  emphasis  of  some  par- 
ticular subject-matter,  as  well  as  an  insufficient  or  over- 
emphasis of  it. 

Diagnostic  Value  of  Objective  Standards.  —  Recognition  of 
the  diagnostic  value  of  tests  is  manifested  in  the  increased 
number  of  tests  that  are  specifically  intended  for  that 
purpose.  A  first-rate  doctor  would  not  think  of  prescribing 
a  course  of  treatment  for  one  who  is  seriously  ill  without  an 
exhaustive  diagnosis  of  the  case.  Teachers  are  beginning 
to  have  a  similar  professional  conscience.     In  one's  effort 


OBJECTIVE  STANDARDS  263 

to  "put  the  oil  where  the  squeak  is"  a  sense  of  economy  in 
time  requires  that  the  squeak  be  definitely  located.  An 
application  of  objective  standards  to  the  practical  affairs 
of  the  schoolroom  aids  mightily  in  locating  it.  Once  it  is 
located,  good  teaching  is  required  to  remove  it  and  to  prevent 
its  recurrence. 


INDEX   OF    TOPICS 


Accumulated  experiences,  73 

Accuracy,  203 

Action  reading,  194 

Agencies  that  conserve  subject- 
matter,  43 

Aim  of  teaching,  3;  social  aim, 
7;   static  aspect  of,  15 

Alternative  questions,  175 

Appeal  to  instincts,  191 

Application,  104 

Application  of  principles  to  arith- 
metic, 200 

Application  of  writing  scale,  206 

Application  vs.  drill,  105 

Appropriate  stimuli,  10 

Arithmetic,  present  status  of,  47 

Arithmetic  standards,  247 

A  Story  of  the  Quail,  58. 

Austrian  method  of  division,  206 

Austrian  method  of  subtraction,  205 

Ayres's  handwriting  scale,  206,  227, 

234 
Ayres's  spelling  scale,  230 

Ballou's  addition  of  fractions  tests, 

256 
Basic  experiences,  18,  82 
Basic    principles    underlying    read- 
ing, 189 
Blackboard  work,  158 
Bliss's  composition  scale,  242 
Breed     and     Frostic's     composition 
scales,  246 


Brown's  silent-reading  test,  241 
Buckingham's  spelling  scale,  231 

Causal  factors,  149 

Causal  thinking,  83 

Child  factor  in  method,  69 

Child  factor  in  the  evolution  of 
subject-matter,  45 

Chronological  organization,  6S 

Class  approval,  157 

Classes  of  standards,  219 

Classes  of  stimuli,  166 

Classroom  materials,  157 

Cleveland  survey  arithmetic  tests, 
250,  251,  252,  253 

Comparison,  103 

Comparison,  value  of,  177;  nature 
of,  177 

Comparison  and  appreciation,  181 

Comparison  and  objective  stand- 
ards, 186 

Comparison  clarifies  thought,  184 

Comparison  in  English,  180;  in 
nature-study,  179;  in  history, 
179 

Comparison  in  textbooks,  186 

Comparison  is  fundamental  to  vig- 
orous thought,  178 

Comparison  provokes  thought,  179 

Comparison  stimulates  the  memory, 
185 

Congenital  variation  and  selection, 
71 


265 


266 


INDEX  OF  TOPICS 


Conservation  of  energy,  205 
Consistent  application,  107 
Control  of  stimuli,  1 1 
Comman's  contribution  to  spelling,  212 
Cornman's  spelling  standard,  229 
Courtis's  silent  reading  test,  240 
Courtis's  standard  tests,  247 
Crossing  the  Bar,  182 
Culture  need,  30 
Cycle,  use  of,  202 

Deduction,  107 
Desire  to  know,  a  need,  36 
Development  method,  173 
Devices,  159 

Devices  for  creating  motive,  201 
Dia.gnostic  value  of  objective  stand- 
ards, 269 
Diagrams,  168 
Direct  perception,  100 
Direct  questions,  175 
Diversity  in  aims,  15 
Dramatization,  two  phases  of,  194 
Drawing  scales,  257 
Drill,  203 

Drudgery,  141 ;  examples  of,  142 
Dynamic  aspect  of  aim,  15 

Earmarks  of  responsibility,  146 

Elliptical  question,  175 

Emotional  factor  in  teaching,  134 

Enthusiasm,  6 ;  for  teaching,  1 1 

Ethical  need,  26 

Evolution  of  responsibility,  147 

Examination  of  data,  109 

Exhibits,  156 

Experimental  work,  154 

Expert  knowledge  in  primary  read- 
ing, 191 

Expert  knowledge  in  the  industries, 
188 

Explanation,  168 


Factors  in  purposive  reasoning,  80 

Factors  in  a  successful  act,  3 

Factors  in  a  teaching  act,  7 

Felt  difl&culty,  109 

Felt  need,  83 

First-hand  experience,  166 

First  objective  standard,  229 

First  step  in  teaching  habit,  1 23 

Formal  steps,  209 

Formation  of  definition,  104 

Fourth    step    in    habit     formation, 

132 
Freeman's     chart     for     diagnosing 

handwriting,    238 
Freeman's  handwriting  scale,  206 
Function  of  definition,  104 
Function  of  organization,  149 
Function  of  subject-matter,  8,  60 
Fundamental     basis     of     responsi- 
bility,   150 
Fundamentals  reduced  to  habit,  22 

Gathering  data,  113 
Generic  and  specific  values,  139 
Geography  scales,  259 
Gettysburg  edition  of  Ayres's  hand- 
writing scale,  237 
Goal  of  instruction,  14 
Graph  of  writing  abilities,  236,  237 
Gray's  oral  reading  test,  240 
Gray's  silent  reading  test,  240 
Group  teaching,  44 

Habit  formation,  117 

Habits  conserve  energy,  119 

Habits    make    for    uniformity    and 

consistency,  120 
Habits  of  reasoning,  89 
Habits  release  energy,  119 
Habits  which  should  be  established, 

121 
Hahn-Lackey  geography  scale,  259 


INDEX   OF  TOPICS 


267 


Harvard-Newton  composition  scale, 

227,  244,  246,  259 
Hillegas's  English  composition  scale, 

242 
History  tests,  259 
Human  nature  accounted  for,  69 
Hurdles  in  first-year  algebra,  261 

Ideals,  27,  142;   nature  of,  138 
Illustrations,  168 
Illustrative  materials,  167 
Imitation,  94 

Imitation  a  conservative  agency,  43 
Importance  of  interest,  136 
Inanimate  organisms,  49 
Incidental  agencies,  159 
Indirect  perception,  loi 
Indirect  question,  175 
Individual  differences,  90 
Individual  reports,  152 
Induction,  99 
Inductive  factors,  100 
Industrial  success,  i 
Instinctive  basis  of  reading,  199 
Instinctive  differences,  ^i 
Instinctive  responses,  87 
Interest,  134,  189 
Interpretative  need,  18 
Interpretative  abilities,  53 
Intrinsic  function  of  writing,  206 

Jones's  scale  for  teaching  and  test- 
ing reading,  241 
Jones's  spelling  demons,  232 

Kansas  silent  reading  scale,  240 
Keeping  store,  202 
Knowledge  of  materials,  4 

Laws  of  habit  formation  applied  to 

spelling,  215 
Lecture  method,  172 


Legal  aspects  of  standards,  218 
Logical  and  psychological  organiza- 
tions, 67 

Maps,  167 

Mark  of  successful  method,  192 

Meaning  of  motive,  138 

Meaning  of  teaching,  93 

Means  and  ends,  93 

IMeans  of  generating  responsi- 
bility,  146 

Measurement  of  both  form  and 
content,  261 

Measurement  in  the  industries,  217 

Method  of  habit  formation,  123 

Method  of  teaching  spelling,  215 

Methods  of  learning,  94 

Methods  of  presenting  subject- 
matter,  170 

Models,  169 

Monroe's  silent  reading  tests,  240 

Montessorian  method,  208 

Motivating  aspect  of  dramatiza- 
tion, 195 

Motivating  factors  in  primary 
arithmetic,  201 ;  in  primary 
method,  192 

Motive,  137;  threefold  aspect  of, 
137;  its  use  in  the  law,  13 

Muscular  movement,  207 

Muscular  percept,  208 

Negative  incentives,  86,  159 

Objective     standards,     227;    origin 

of,  228 
One  hundred  spelling  demons,  232 
Optional  work,  153 
Organization   and    logical    thinking, 

56 
Organization  and  retention,  57 
Organization  of  geography,  64,  65 


268 


INDEX   OF  TOPICS 


Organization  of  Paul  Revere's  Ride, 

65,66 
Organization  of  subject-matter,  49 
Organization  of  the  poem,  William 

Tell,  62,  63 
Origin  of  subject-matter,  35,  38 

Phonograms,  193;  cause  short-cir- 
cuiting, 194 

Pictures,  197 

Play,  140 

Prejudices,  27,  142 

Price's  scale  for  teaching  and  test- 
ing elementary  reading,  241 

Problematic  assignments,  151 

Problems,  80,  203 

Project  defined,  82 ;  examples  of, 
81;  relation  to  problem,  81; 
value  of,  82 

Psychic  principles  of  writing,  207 

Pupil  organizations,  162 

Pupils'  desire  to  win,  155 

Purpose  determines  structure,  50 

Purposive  thinking,  78 

Questions,  174 

Reactive  attitude  of  child,  8,  74 
Reading,    application   of   principles, 

192;      materials,     198;      present 

status  of,  191 ;  standards,  240 
Reasoning  a  method  of  control,  96 
Relative  values,  44 
Reports  to  parents,  160 
Research  ideal,  19 
Results    of    spelling    investigations, 

214 
Rhythmic  instinct,  192 
Rice's  arithmetic  test,  247 
Rice's      contribution      to     spelling, 

211 
Rules  in  spelling,  213 


School's  use  of  expert  knowledge,  18^ 

Schoolroom  requirements,  160 

Second  step  in  teaching  habit,  125 

Sense  differences,  90 

Short-circuiting,  106 

Simplified  spelling,  214 

Skill,  21 ;   in  controlling  stimuli,  5 

Social  approval  a  means  of  respon- 
sibility, 154 

Social  efficiency,  17 

Socializing  need,  23,  17 

Social  sympathy,  25 

Speed,  203 

Spelling  problem  analyzed,  211 

Spelling  reforms,  211 

Spelling  standards,  229 

Spontaneous  thinking,  76 

Standardized  tests,  163;  in  first- 
year  algebra,  260 

Standard  of  classroom  technique,  222 

Standard,  grades,  and  promotions, 
221 

Standard,  pupil-community  at- 
titude, 220 

Standard,  reactive  attitude  of 
child,  223 

Standards  for  measuring  results  in 
teaching,  217 

Standards  in  algebra,  250 

Starch's  handwriting  standard,  238 

Starch's  silent  reading  test,  241 

Starch's  spelling  scale,  231 

Steps  in  induction,  108 

Stimuli,  value  and  character  of,  166 

Structure  of  subject-matter,  8 

Structure  reveals  function,  53 

Subjective  standards,  219 

Subject-matter  a  factor  in  respon- 
sibility, 148;  dynamic  char- 
acter of,  35 

Success,  204;  a  positive  incentive, 
87 


INDEX   OF    TOPICS 


269 


Ten-point  scale,  225 

Tentative  hypotheses,  no,  113 

Testing  hypotheses,  no 

Tests  in  American  history,  259 

Textbook  methods,  170 

The  Human  Seasons,  183 

Third     step    in     habit     formation, 

129 
Thorndike's  drawing  scale,  227 
Thorndike's  handwriting  scale,   206, 

232 
Thorndike's    reading    scales,    alpha 

2  and  A  2,  240 
Topical  recitation,  158 
Trabue's  composition  standard,  246 
Twofold  aspect  of  interest,  135 
Twofold       aspect       of      structure, 

51 
Twofold  aspect  of  worth-whileness, 

34 
Two  theories  of  evolution,  70 


Two  types  of  reasoning,   99 
Types  of  thinking,  76 

Unifying    idea,    means    of    de\elop- 

ing,  56 
Unstandardized  scales,  225 
Use  of  generic  values,  140 

Value    of    voluntary    contribution'^, 

152 
Verification,  in 
Visual  percept,  207 

Wallin's  contribution  to  speUing,  212 
Wasted  energy  expensive,  190 
Willing's  composition  scale,  246 
Woody's     arithmetic     scales,     253, 

254,  25s 
Word  lists,  232 
Writing  habit,  207 
Writing  standards,  232 


INDEX   OF   AUTHORS 


Ay^es,  Leonard  P.,  232,  234,  238 

Bagley,  W.  C,  16,  124 

Ballou,  Frank  W.,  244,  256 

Bliss,  D.  C,  242 

Breed,  F.  S.,  246 

Browning,  Robert,  47 

Buckingham,  B.  R.,  231 

Charters,  W.  W.,  37,  56 

Clark,  J.  R.,  260 

Cook,  W.  A.,  213,  214 

Cornman,  Oliver  P.,  212,  229,  230 

Courtis,  W.  S.,  240,  247,  249,  257 

Dalman,  Murray  A.,  261 

Darwin,  Charles  R.,  69 

Dewey,  John,  97 

Freeman,  F.  N.,  206,  207,  238 

Frostic,  F.  W.,  246 

Galton,  Francis,  71,  72 

Gray,  W.  S.,  240,  249 

Hahn,  H.  H.,  259 

Hanus,  Paul,  16 

Harlan,  C.  L.,  259 

Hillegas,  M.  B.,  242 

James,  William,  23,  125 

Johnston,  Charles  H.,  225 

Jones,  Franklin,  232 

Jones,  R.  G.,  241 

Judd,  Charles,  36 


Kelly,  F.  J.,  240 

Lackey,  E.  E.,  259 

La  Marck,  Jean,  71 

McMurry,  F.  M.,  171,  223,  226 

Mann,  Horace,  43 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  240 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  16 

Rice,    J.    B.,    211,    228,    229,    230, 

241,  247 
Rowe,  Stuart  H.,  23 
Ruediger,  W.  C,  16 
Rugg,  H.  O.,  260 
Saxe,  John  G.,  39 
Seton,  Ernest  Thompson,  46 
Spencer,  Herbert,  16,  147 
Starch,  Daniel,  231,  238,  241,  257 
Stone,  Clifford,  257 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  47 
Thorndike,  Edward  L.,  16,  232,  233, 

243 
Trabue,  M.  R.,  246 
Wallin,  J.  E.  W.,  212 
Warner,  Dudley,  46 
Weismann,  A.,  71 
Whipple,  G.  M.,  154 
Willing,  M.  H.,  246 
Woody,  Clifford,  255 


271 


UCLAYoung   Research    Library 

LB1025   .T85 
y 


L  009  610  372  6 

iiiiiiiii 

AA    001225  512    1 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

\LOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


